





                         BRITISH BRAILLE
 

                         A Restatement of
                     Standard English Braille












 
                     Compiled and Authorised
                              by the
             Braille Authority of the United Kingdom

                 
















              Royal National Institute for the Blind
                  Bakewell Road, Orton Southgate
                   Peterborough, Cambridgeshire
                             PE2 6XU
                               1992
 






















ISBN 0 901797 90 1
C Braille Authority of the United Kingdom 1992
Printed by RNIB, Peterborough 1992




                       CONTENTS 
    Note
1. TERMINOLOGY
2. CHARACTERS AND SIGNS 
  2.1. Letters of the alphabet
  2.2. Numbers 
  2.3. Punctuation signs
  2.4. Composition signs
  2.5. Mathematical signs
  2.6. Print symbols and braille reference signs
3. LIST OF CONTRACTIONS 
  3.1. Simple upper wordsigns
  3.2. Simple upper groupsigns
  3.3. Lower contractions
  3.4. Composite wordsigns
  3.5. Composite groupsigns
  3.6. Shortforms 
4. USE OF PUNCTUATION SIGNS 
  4.1. Apostrophe 
  4.2. Brackets 
  4.3. Dashes 
  4.4. Ellipsis 
  4.5. Hyphen 
  4.6. Oblique stroke 
  4.7. Quotation marks 
5. USE OF COMPOSITION SIGNS 
  5.1. Accents 
  5.2. Capitals 
  5.3. Dot locator
  5.4. Italics
  5.5. Letter sign
  5.6. Line sign
  5.7. Non-Roman scripts
6. MATHEMATICS 
  6.1. Cardinal numbers 
  6.2. Contracted numbers 
  6.3. Decimals 
  6.4. Fractions 
  6.5. Mathematical signs 
  6.6. Ordinal numbers 
  6.7. Roman numerals 
7. ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS 
  7.1. Print abbreviations 
  7.2. Print symbols 
  7.3. References 
  7.4. Scansion and stress 
  7.5. Unit abbreviations
8. USE OF CONTRACTIONS
  8.1. General 
  8.2. Simple upper wordsigns 
  8.3. Simple upper groupsigns 
  8.4. Lower contractions 
  8.5. Composite wordsigns
  8.6. Composite groupsigns
  8.7. Shortforms 
  8.8. Preference 
  8.9. Bridging 
  8.10. English names 
  8.11. Foreign words and names 
  8.12. Early english 
  8.13. Stammered, lisped and slurred words 
  8.14. Word endings
9. LAYOUT AND BOOK WORK
  9.1. General 
  9.2. Book work
  9.3. Correspondence
  9.4. Notes
  9.5. Paragraphs
  9.6. Plays
  9.7. Poetry
  9.8. Quoted passages
  9.9. Word division
APPENDICES 
  I. Some foreign alphabets 
  II. Signs used in some foreign codes 
  III. Guide to contracting 
INDEX 




                            NOTE 

  The Braille Authority of the United Kingdom, which has
issued this book, is the standard-setting body for braille in this
country. 
  In the event of any divergence between the print edition
and the braille edition of this work, the latter should be
regarded as the definitive text. 
  The object of this book is to provide for transcribers, copyists
and proofreaders of braille a standard interpretation of the
usages of inkprint, and for readers, teachers and students of
braille a guide to agreed practice. However, no attempt has been
made to legislate comprehensively for the writing of braille which
is not derived from a print original, or which is for private use
only. In such cases writers will not infrequently find themselves
faced with a choice of acceptable conventions to follow; but
within a single document they should try to be consistent in the
way they exercise such choices. This book should be regarded as a
work of reference, and not as a teaching manual.

                          * * * * *
  
  In this print edition, braille contractions in examples have
been indicated by the use of capitals. Adjacent contractions have
been separated in the print by an oblique stroke.

                          * * * * *


                        1. TERMINOLOGY 

  Dots are numbered within the braille cell as follows: 
       Top left, 1; Middle left, 2; Bottom left, 3; 
       Top right, 4; Middle right, 5; Bottom right, 6. 
 
Abbreviation: 
  shortened representation of word or words in print. 
Cell: 
  6-dot matrix which is the basis of braille. 
Character: 
  any of the 63 combinations of dots that can occupy a braille
  cell.  
Composite: 
  consisting of more than 1 character. 
Composition sign: 
  braille sign which has no direct print equivalent. 
Contraction: 
  braille sign which represents a word or a group of letters. 
Grade 1 braille:
  grade of braille which includes all the signs given in section
  2 and the rules relating to them. Braille contractions are not
  used. 
Grade 2 braille:
  grade of braille which includes all the signs given in sections
  2 and 3 and the rules relating to them. Braille contractions
  are used. 
Groupsign: 
  contraction which represents a group of letters. 
Initial: 
  at the beginning of a word. 
Lefthand: 
  lacking dots 4, 5 and 6. 
Lower: 
  lacking dots 1 and 4. 
Medial: 
  neither at the beginning nor at the end of a word. 
Punctuation sign: 
  braille sign which represents a print punctuation mark.  
Righthand: 
  lacking dots 1, 2 and 3. 
Sequence: 
  2 or more words written without an intervening space. 
Shortform: 
  composite contraction representing a word and not consisting of a
  righthand character followed by one upper character. 
Sign: 
  1 or more characters with indivisible significance. 
Simple: 
  consisting of 1 character. 
Space: 
  cell containing no embossed dots. 
String: 
  series of unspaced characters. 
Symbol: 
  print sign which is not a letter, number, accent or punctuation
  mark.  
Terminal: 
  at the end of a word. 
Upper: 
  including dot 1 and/or dot 4. 
Wordsign: 
  contraction which represents a complete word. 


 
                     2. CHARACTERS AND SIGNS  

  The dot locator (see 2.4) precedes characters or signs to 
assist in their identification. 
  Where a string of letters is required to demonstrate the 
application of a sign, xxx is used. 

                   2.1. LETTERS OF THE ALPHABET

a  f  k  p  u 
b  g  l  q  v 
c  h  m  r  w 
d  i  n  s  x 
e  j  o  t  y 
z
 
                           2.2. NUMBERS

1 one    6 six 
2 two    7 seven 
3 three  8 eight 
4 four   9 nine 
5 five   0 zero
 
                      2.3. PUNCTUATION SIGNS

, comma 
; semicolon 
: colon 
. full stop or abbreviation point 
! exclamation mark 
(xxx) open and close round brackets 
? question mark 
"xxx" open and close double inverted commas 
/ oblique stroke
' apostrophe
... ellipsis [#3 dot 3's] 
- hyphen
-- short dash 
---- long dash 
~(xxx~) open and close phonemic brackets [#dot 4 lower g]
{(xxx{) open and close phonetic brackets [#dots 45 lower g]
}(xxx}) open and close angle brackets [#dots 456 lower g]
_(xxx_) open and close brace brackets [#dots 46 lower g]
[xxx] open and close square brackets 
'xxx' open and close single inverted commas 


                     2.4. COMPOSITION SIGNS

FOR dot locator
, non-Roman letter sign [#dot 2]
AR line sign
BLE numeral sign 
~ accent sign [#dot 4]
~ print symbol indicator [#dot 4]
facsimile hyphen [#dot 5]
print page indicator [#dot 5 colon]
italic sign
double italic sign 
letter sign
double letter sign [#dots 56 dots 56]
capital sign
double capital sign 
triple capital sign 


                     2.5. MATHEMATICAL SIGNS

CH subscript
, decimal point [#dot 2]
: is to (ratio)
ING superscript 
numerical comma [#dot 3]
divided by 
+ plus
= equals
multiplied by
- minus 
separation sign 


          2.6. PRINT SYMBOLS AND BRAILLE REFERENCE SIGNS

                          Print Symbols
at commercial "at"
d. denoting death 
f. female sign
l pound sign 
m. male sign
oOW double dagger 
pAR paragraph sign
s. section sign [#s dot 3] 
OWo dagger
OW: left arrow 
OW:o double-headed arrow
:o right arrow
:p per cent 
:th per thousand
dollar sign [#lower d]
* asterisk
degrees sign [#lower j]
- end of metrical foot
-- caesura 
~AND ampersand [#dot 4 AND]
~IN minute or foot sign (a single prime) [#dot 4 IN]
~IN/IN second or inch sign (a double prime) [#dot 4 IN/IN]
~BLE hash [#dot 4 BLE]
short or unstressed syllable [#dots 45]
long or stressed syllable [#dots 456]
ditto [#dot 5 dot 2]
doubtful stress or quantity [#dots 56]
cross [#dots 56 lower h]

                     Braille Reference Signs

p#   page or pages
v#   volume or volumes
CH#  chapter or chapters


                    3. LIST OF CONTRACTIONS 

                   3.1. SIMPLE UPPER WORDSIGNS

b but         p people    CH child 
c can         q quite     SH shall 
d do          r rather    TH this 
e every       s so        WH which 
f from        t that      OU out 
g go          u us        ST still 
h have        v very 
j just        w will 
k knowledge   x it 
l like        y you 
m more        z as 
n not 


                 3.2. SIMPLE UPPER GROUPSIGNS

  The signs for AND, FOR, OF, THE, WITH may be used as 
wordsigns. 
AND    CH    ED    BLE 
FOR    GH    ER    ING 
OF     SH    OU 
THE    TH    OW 
WITH   WH    ST 
             AR

 
                   3.3. LOWER CONTRACTIONS
 
Wordsigns  
  ENOUGH 
  TO (sequenced)
  WERE 
  HIS
  INTO (sequenced) 
  BY (sequenced)
  WAS
 
Initial Groupsigns 
  BE (also used as word) 
  CON
  DIS
  COM
 
Initial-Medial-Terminal Groupsigns 
  EN
  IN (also used as word) 

Medial Groupsigns 
  EA
  BB
  CC 
  DD
  FF
  GG
 
                  3.4. COMPOSITE WORDSIGNS
 
  These wordsigns may be used as parts of words.

UPON      CANNOT 
WORD      HAD 
THESE     MANY 
THOSE     SPIRIT 
WHOSE     WORLD 
          THEIR
  
DAY         RIGHT 
EVER        SOME 
FATHER      TIME 
HERE        UNDER 
KNOW        WORK 
LORD        YOUNG 
MOTHER      THERE 
NAME        CHARACTER 
ONE         THROUGH
PART        WHERE 
QUESTION    OUGHT 


                   3.5. COMPOSITE GROUPSIGNS

  These groupsigns may be used only medially and terminally. 

OUND    ENCE    ATION 
ANCE    ONG     ALLY 
SION    FUL 
LESS    TION 
OUNT    NESS 
        MENT
        ITY 


                       3.6. SHORTFORMS
 
ab        about 
abv       above 
ac        according 
acr       across
af        after
afn       afternoon
afw       afterward 
ag        again 
agST      against 
alm       almost
alr       already 
al        also 
alTH      although
alt       altogether
alw       always 
BEc       because
BEf       before 
BEh       behind
BEl       below
BEn       beneath
BEs       beside  
BEt       between
BEy       beyond 
bl        blind 
brl       braille 
CHn       children
CONcv     conceive
CONcvg    conceiving
cd        could
dcv       deceive
dcvg      deceiving
dcl       declare
dclg      declaring 
ei        either  
fST       first 
fr        friend
gd        good 
grt       great 
hERf      herself
hm        him 
hmf       himself 
imm       immediate 
xs        its
xf        itself 
lr        letter 
ll        little
mCH       much 
mST       must 
myf       myself 
nec       necessary 
nei       neither 
o'c       o'clock 
ONEf      oneself 
OUrvs     ourselves 
pd        paid 
pERcv     perceive 
pERcvg    perceiving 
pERh      perhaps 
qk        quick 
rcv       receive 
rcvg      receiving 
rjc       rejoice 
rjcg      rejoicing
sd        said 
SHd       should 
sCH       such 
THEmvs    themselves 
THyf      thyself 
td        today (or) to-day 
tgr       together 
tm        tomorrow (or) to-morrow 
tn        tonight (or) to-night 
wd        would 
yr        your 
yrf       yourself 
yrvs      yourselves 



                  4. USE OF PUNCTUATION SIGNS 
 
  Where a string of punctuation and/or composition 
signs occurs, they should be placed in the order illustrated 
below.

  open bracket
  open quotation mark 
    italic sign
    double italic sign 
      letter sign
      double letter sign 
      non-Roman letter sign
      numeral sign 
        apostrophe 
          capital sign 
          double capital sign 
          triple capital sign
          decimal point 
            accent sign
 
  Any number of punctuation signs may be written in an 
unspaced string, even when they are all lower signs not in 
contact with an upper sign. 
    Examples: (? 1389); "Help ...!" 


                      4.1. APOSTROPHE

4.1.1. When the apostrophe is used for the suppression of the
initial or final letters of a word, print's spacing should
normally be followed.  But if the spacing is inconsistent or
indeterminate, a space should be left in braille.
    Example: And loves to live i' th' sun

4.1.2. For the sake of clarity it is sometimes necessary to
insert the apostrophe in braille when omitted in print. 
    Examples: the 1930's; p's and q's; GP's; M.P.'s.;
but: MPs' pay. 
  The penultimate example requires the apostrophe since it is
followed by a full stop. When not followed by a full stop, this
case would not require an apostrophe if not present in print.
    Example: M.P.s
    
4.1.3. Division should not be made at the braille line
immediately after the apostrophe when the letter or letters
preceding it do not form a syllable.  
    Example: CH/ARg~e d'aFFaires; l'~Ile Joyeuse; taBLE d'hote.

4.1.4. Omitted letters in a word, indicated in print by dots or
asterisks, should be shown in braille by an equivalent number of
dot 3's unspaced from one another and from the letters between
which they lie, whether spaced or unspaced in print. 
    Examples: d..n (damn); L....n (London); G....OW (Glasgow);
Y... (York); R.b.ns.n (Robinson); Con.....INople
(Constantinople). 
 
 When the number of dots or asterisks in print seems to be 
different from the number of omitted letters, braille should
not attempt to correct this. 
    Example: b...d (bastard).

  Such words may generally be divided at the braille line
according to the usual rules of word division, provided the
second line does not begin with a dot 3.  


                             4.2. BRACKETS

4.2.1. If more than one paragraph occurs in a bracketed passage, 
the opening bracket (either round or square) should be repeated
before each paragraph, the closing bracket appearing only at the
end of the final paragraph.   
  If a bracketed paragraph contains listed items which are
indented in the braille in cell 5 or 7, etc., it is not
necessary to reopen the brackets before each such item. (See
also 9.1.7.) 

4.2.2. Round and square brackets do not necessarily alternate as
outer and inner quotation marks normally do. Print should be
followed in this matter.

4.2.3. When a portion of a word is enclosed in brackets of
whatever kind, these should be retained in braille and the letter
sign should not be used. Contractions within or adjacent to the
brackets should be used with care.
    Examples: egg(hEAd), g[eorge], nOUn(s), s(OUnd)ED, sta(ff)ord.

4.2.4. When a bracketed number occurs within a word, a
hyphen should be inserted after the first part of the word,
followed by the bracketed number spaced on either side, followed
by the second part of the word. 

4.2.5. When a question mark or exclamation mark or other 
punctuation stands by itself in print, it should be enclosed in
round brackets in braille.  

4.2.6. Brace brackets which appear in an ordinary line of text
follow the same rules as do round or square brackets. Where print
uses large brace brackets to enclose a stack of items, it may be
convenient to show this by simply listing those items across the
page, enclosing the list within ordinary brace brackets, and
separating the items from one another with appropriate
punctuation. 
 
4.2.7. When print uses only a closing bracket (half bracket)
for lettered or numbered paragraphs, etc., braille should
generally follow print.


                           4.3. DASHES
 
4.3.1. Print should generally be followed with regard to 
the length of the dash. 

4.3.2. Whatever the spacing of a conjunctive short dash in print,
it should be brailled unspaced from the words which precede and
follow it, unless, as is permissible, the dash appears at the
beginning or the end of a braille line. 

4.3.3. When a short or long dash is used to indicate an
interrupted sentence it should be brailled unspaced from the
word or part-word which precedes it. 

4.3.4. A braille line may end with a short or long dash even when
preceded by an opening bracket or quotation sign. The dash may
begin a line of braille even when followed by punctuation or by
the line sign.

4.3.5. Where the dash is preceded by other punctuation, this 
combination may not be divided at the braille line, in spite
of 4.3.4. 

4.3.6. When a short or long dash indicates suppressed letters of
a word, the dash should be unspaced from the remaining letters,
and the whole string should be in the same braille line. The
letter sign is not required for the retained letters.

4.3.7. When a short or long dash represents an omitted word, it
must be spaced as a word.  

4.3.8. In an italicised passage beginning or ending with a short
or long dash, the dash should not be included within the italics
in braille.  
  But a spaced dash occurring within an italicised passage should
be counted as a word, though it should never itself be preceded
by the italic sign.

4.3.9. Where print uses the dash as a quotation mark,
braille should follow suit. In this case the dash should be
spaced as an ordinary quotation sign and may not be
separated from following text by the end of the braille line.
Braille should not insert a dash, eg as a closing quotation mark,
when print does not do so. 


                         4.4. ELLIPSIS
 
4.4.1. A series of dots in print is shown in braille by the
ellipsis, which is treated as a word for the purposes of spacing. 
    Examples: "Love is life's ... sign."
"... is life's only sign." "Love is life's only ... ." [#Last dot
a full stop] 

4.4.2. If print shows, either by the use of an initial capital or
by the spacing of the dots, a clear or consistent intention to
use an extra dot to represent a full stop, this should be
followed in braille. If print employs 4 equally spaced dots, but
it cannot be decided whether the stop should precede or follow
the ellipsis, braille should use the 3-dot ellipsis only. 

4.4.3. In an italicised passage beginning or ending with an
ellipsis, the ellipsis should not be included within the italics
in braille.  
  But an ellipsis occurring within an italicised passage should
be counted as a word, though it should never itself be preceded
by the italic sign.


                           4.5. HYPHEN

4.5.1. In expressions which end or begin with a hyphen, a space
should always be left in braille after or before the hyphen, as
appropriate.  
    Examples: sittING- AND dIN/ING-room; FORty-ONE or -two.

4.5.2. The hyphen in a compound or divided word must not
begin a braille line.

4.5.3. Where words are hyphenated to separate off particular
parts of the word, or where a hyphen is used at the start of a
suffix, etc., for example in a grammar book, a contraction
should be avoided if there is any danger of the word or word
segment being misread. Specific rules for particular contractions
are given in section 8 on the use of contractions, and in
particular in section 8.14 on word endings.


                       4.6. OBLIQUE STROKE

4.6.1. When an oblique stroke is used to separate groups of
letters and/or numbers, the letter sign or numeral sign should
always be repeated.  
    Examples: ab/cd; ab/1234; 123/456; 578/CJ/34. 
  
  For the treatment of an oblique stroke placed between single
letters see 7.1.9.

4.6.2. When an oblique stroke is used to denote "per", it 
should be retained in braille whether there are words,
abbreviations, letters or numbers on either side. 
    Examples: 100/sec; 100/second. 

4.6.3. The oblique stroke may not begin a braille line. When a
group of words containing an oblique stroke is divided after the
stroke at the braille line, a hyphen must be inserted after the
stroke.
  If a string consists entirely of letters and/or numbers, as
opposed to whole words or abbreviations, it should only 
be divided if it is very long. 

4.6.4. An appropriate substitute, such as a hyphen, 
brackets, or the word or, should be used instead of the
oblique stroke when it could reasonably be read as the
contraction for ST. (See also 7.1.9.)
    Examples: typiST/ST/ENographER (typist/stenographer);
watER/air piSTol.

4.6.5. Of the simple wordsigns only AND, FOR, OF,
THE, WITH may normally be used in conjunction with the
oblique stroke. 
    Examples: AND/or; in/OUt; to/from. 


                    4.7. QUOTATION MARKS

4.7.1. Braille should generally use the one-cell quotation 
signs for double inverted commas and the two-cell quotation
signs for single inverted commas. 

4.7.2. If print uses single inverted commas to represent
outer quotes and double inverted commas to represent inner
quotes throughout a text, the signs may be reversed in braille
for space and reading convenience. When this occurs, a
transcriber's note should be inserted at the beginning of the
text if this information is regarded as of particular importance
to the transcription.  

4.7.3. Where print uses the two sorts of inverted commas to
make an essential distinction, as for example between spoken
dialogue and thoughts, braille should follow suit. 
  However, if print uses italics to indicate thoughts,
braille should adopt this practice. 

4.7.4. Where quotations occur within quotations, 
the two sorts of quotation marks should normally alternate in
braille, regardless of the print practice. This even applies
when quotes are inserted in the braille around an extract: in
this case the first level of quotes appearing within the
extract will be inner quotes in the braille, etc.

4.7.5. In quotations of more than one paragraph or stanza, 
the opening quotation sign should be repeated before each 
paragraph or stanza, even if not shown in print. 
It should also be repeated before a centred heading or 
stanza number. However, the closing quotation sign should not
be used until the end of the quoted matter. 

4.7.6. If a quoted paragraph contains listed items which
are indented in braille in cell 5 or 7, etc., it is not
necessary to reopen the quotes before each such item.

4.7.7. When print reopens quotation marks 
at the beginning of each line of a document, 
poem, etc., this practice should not be followed in braille. 

 
                  5. USE OF COMPOSITION SIGNS 
 
  For the order of signs see the beginning of section 4. 

                        5.1. ACCENTS
 
5.1.1. The accent sign is placed before an accented letter,
whether the accent appears above or below the letter in
print. It should be used to represent print accents whenever the
special braille signs for accented letters are not used.
    Examples: caf~e, gAR~con.
 
  An accented letter must not form part of a contraction. 
    Example: g~en~eral. 

5.1.2. The accent sign is used to mark English stressed or
separate syllables. It may then be used before a contraction. 
    Examples: BElov~ED, bLESS/~ED.

5.1.3. When a capital letter in print is not accented for 
typographical reasons, it is desirable that the accent should be
shown in braille. 

5.1.4. The special signs for accented letters should not 
normally be regarded as an integral part of Standard English
Braille, but should be reserved for foreign language textbooks,
etc.  

5.1.5. In texts where the special codes for accented
letters are used (see Appendix II), and where the letter sign
method is appropriate, each word, or each element of a hyphenated
compound word, containing an accented letter must be preceded by
a letter sign and written uncontracted. The placing of the letter
sign is not affected if the word happens to be divided at the
braille line.  
    Examples:
    creme brulee
    Levi-STrauss
    Levy-Bruhl
    Levy-Fouquieres

  In grammar books or foreign language texts the use of the
codes for accented letters may be indicated by special layout
etc., or by general convention, rather than by using letter
signs. Except for these cases, the letter sign method will
normally be required.
 
 5.1.6. If, within the main foreign text, a second foreign 
language is employed, the latter's accents may be rendered by 
using either the accent sign (dot 4) or the special accent
signs for that language. 

5.1.7. When vowels are elided, as in l' and d', 
the letter sign if required follows the l' or d'. (See also rule
4.1.3.) 
    Examples:
    l'ete
    d'etre


                         5.2. CAPITALS

5.2.1. Capital signs are not generally used in the United
Kingdom. When they are, the following rules apply:
 
  The capital sign is placed before a letter which in print is
capitalised.  
    Example: Sir W/IN/STon CHurCHill

  The double capital sign is used to indicate that a whole
word or a group of letters in print is capitalised. 
    Example: PARLIAMENT

5.2.2. It may occasionally be necessary to use capital signs for 
clarification of the text.  
    Examples: "Help! Help! [#italics] HELP!". Wood figures (where
Wood is a personal name).

  In particular, where print employs capitals to distinguish
one meaning from another, braille may need to use capital signs 
    Example: In this book the concepts "idea" and
"Idea" differ as follows.
  [The word "Idea" is preceded by dot 6.]

  (See also 7.5 on unit abbreviations.)
   
5.2.3. The double capital sign must be repeated after a
hyphen in a compound word. But if a word that is not compound is
hyphenated at the end of a braille line, the double capital sign
should not be repeated at the beginning of the new line. 
    Example: TITLE-PAGES

5.2.4. If capitals are generally being shown in braille, as in
typists' examination papers, a single capital letter with no stop
after it which would normally be preceded by a letter sign should
be preceded by the combination letter sign plus capital sign.

    Example: Mr J Smi/TH

  If spaced capitals appear in print, the triple capital sign
should be brailled before each word. 
    Example: I  A M  J O H N  S M I T H.


                          5.3. DOT LOCATOR

5.3.1. The dot locator is used to identify braille characters. In
a series of listed or tabulated braille characters the dot
locator should normally precede each of them. But when there is
reference to individual braille characters as such in continuous
text, it will generally be desirable for each of them to be both
preceded and followed by the dot locator, especially when they
are in contact with punctuation signs.


                            5.4. ITALICS

5.4.1. The italic sign is placed before a word to show that
it is printed in italic type. 
    Example: _a _priori; _Prime _M/INiST/ER

  If more than three consecutive words are italicised, the
first word is preceded by the double italic sign and the last
word by the single italic sign. 
    Example: THE H/OUses OF P/ARliaMENT

5.4.2. Where, as in most centred headings, print italics
may be regarded as pictorial, they need not be reproduced in
braille. 
  However, when print italics are ignored, significant 
reversions to ordinary type should be italicised in braille.

5.4.3. In quoted extracts, either prose or verse, set in
print with both italics and quotation marks, the italics are
generally unnecessary in braille.  

5.4.4. Where print reverts to ordinary type for odd words or
phrases within an italicised passage, the italics should not be 
terminated in braille. Instead one of the following procedures
should be adopted:  

   (a) If the words in ordinary type constitute a name or 
title, or are in ordinary type to indicate that they are foreign,
they should be quoted.

   (b) If the words are set in ordinary type to give them 
particular emphasis, they should each be preceded by the single
or double capital sign, as appropriate. 

   (c) Sometimes the change of type is to be disregarded in
braille, as for instance when the words in question occur in
square brackets.  

5.4.5. Where print reverts from italics to ordinary type
for an odd letter or letters (usually at the end of a word), this 
change of type can be disregarded in braille. 

5.4.6. Where a date or other number forms part of an italicised 
title or other phrase, it should be included within the italics
in braille whether or not it has been italicised in print. 

5.4.7. In italicised passages consisting of more than one
paragraph the double italic sign must be repeated before each
paragraph. This rule applies even if the paragraph consists of
three or fewer words. However, the last word of the passage is
preceded by the single italic sign whether or not this final word
constitutes a paragraph.

5.4.8. When an unhyphenated italicised word in print is 
divided at the braille line, the italic sign should not be
repeated at the beginning of the new line.
  However, italicised compound words and words whose components 
are joined by the hyphen require the italic sign after each
hyphen.  
    Examples: blue-eyED; co-opER/ATION; well-BElovED;
well-to-DO

  Note that the words _today, _tomorrow, _tonight, when
written with hyphens, do not count as compound words because they
are brailled as shortforms which do not contain the hyphens. 

5.4.9. In phrases of more than three italicised words joined 
by hyphens, the double italic sign should precede the first word
and the single italic sign the last word. 
    Examples: nEVER-to-be-FORgottEN; OUT-OF-THE-way

5.4.10. Where the last word of an italicised passage is a 
hyphenated compound word, the closing italic sign should precede
the final part of the compound word. 
    Example: IT WAS a sad home-comING.

5.4.11. Compound numbers separated by the hyphen should be
treated as separate numbers for the purpose of italics. 
    Examples: 1939-40; VII-XX; 12TH-15TH.

5.4.12. English words joined by the apostrohe are treated as
a single word for the purpose of italics.
    Examples: O'CLOCK; Tess OF THE d'UrbERvilles; Morte
d'AR/THur; neARly five O'CLOCK.

5.4.13. Foreign words joined by the apostrophe are treated
separately for the purpose of italics.
    Examples: l'orange; le roi s'amuse.

5.4.14. Words or abbreviations joined by an oblique stroke
which is to be retained in braille are treated separately for
the purpose of italics.
    Examples: he/SHe; plEAse STate male/female.

5.4.15. When an italicised abbreviation consists of a string of
signs including more than one abbreviation point, the italic sign
should not be repeated after each abbreviation point.
    Examples: i.e.; Ph.d.; R.S.V.P.

5.4.16. Where part of a word is italicised, the italicised 
portion should be separated by a hyphen from the rest of the 
word. Care should be taken in the use of contractions. 
    Examples:
  [Note: In the following, the hyphens do not necessarily appear
in print.]
    domi-neER/ING; grOW-ING; grOW-ING; un-en-dING; un-easy;
weARi-ness.
 
5.4.17. Each italicised title in a succession of titles
should be italicised separately, but a subtitle should not be
italicised separately from the main title. 

5.4.18.  When an italicised phrase is followed by a bracketed
italicised abbreviation of or alternative to that phrase, they
should be italicised separately.

5.4.19. When two consecutive abbreviations, words or phrases are
italicised for different reasons, they should be italicised
separately in braille. 
    Example: cf. AS YOU LIKE IT.

5.4.20. Where print uses underlining, braille should italicise
except where a distinction between italics and underlining needs
to be maintained.

5.4.21. It is generally not necessary to italicise
titles, etc., in braille if not italicised in print. However,
there may be occasions when it is desirable to italicise in order
to avoid ambiguity (the title being distinguished in print by
initial capitals).
    Example: In the station he saw a man looking at The Times.
[The Times italicised in braille.]

                       5.5. LETTER SIGN

5.5.1. The letter sign is used in braille to distinguish letters
from words.  
    Example: I HAVE ALWAYS likED secTIONs h AND i.
 
 The letter sign is also used to distinguish letters that follow
figures without a space.  
    Example: 22a.

5.5.2. In ordinary text a foreign word or name consisting
of a single letter which could be read as an English wordsign,
including cases where such a single letter is preceded and/or
followed by a hyphen, should be preceded by the letter sign.  
    Examples: adagio e cantabile; Ortega Y Gasset; U THant;
a priori. 
 
 This may not be necessary in specialised contexts, such as
grammar books, etc. (see also 5.1.5). 

5.5.3. When a word is spelt out with hyphens between the letters,
the letter sign is not required. 
    Example: w-i-n-d-o-w. 

  Such a string should only be divided if at least three letters 
appear on each braille line. Such division may be made without
regard to syllables.  

5.5.4. The letter sign normally precludes the use of 
contractions in any word or letter-group which it introduces 
(but see 8.3.4). 

5.5.5. The influence of the letter sign does not carry
beyond punctuation or composition signs. 
    Examples: A-tEAm, D-DAY, L-plates, T-SHirt, X-ray;
Folio 60 b-d; CHords ceg-dfa; (R)AC; ESN(M); THE
fracTION x/y; ac/dc.

5.5.6. When a reference letter or Roman numeral appears in 
brackets, the letter sign must be used. 
    Examples: (a), (w); (i), (viii).

5.5.7. Where single letters are enclosed in quotation marks
or italicised in print, the letter sign should generally 
be used instead in braille. 

5.5.8. Where letters of the alphabet are used as designations, 
the letter sign should be used, and the abbreviation point, if
shown in print, should be omitted. 
    Examples: PoINt A IN THE lINe AB; rOW n; THE spy X


                       5.6. LINE SIGN

5.6.1. The line sign should be spaced from a preceding word
when there is no intervening punctuation, should be followed by
either a space or the end of a braille line, and may not begin a
braille line.
 
5.6.2. The line sign is normally unspaced from preceding 
punctuation. However, a space should be left before the line
sign when it is preceded by the apostrophe or hyphen. 

5.6.3. A dash should be brailled unspaced from a following 
line sign and such a combination may begin a braille line. 
But if a dash occurs at the beginning of a verse line, it must be
spaced from the preceding line sign.  

5.6.4. An ellipsis ending a line of poetry should be spaced from 
the following line sign. Such a combination may begin a braille
line.  


                   5.7. NON-ROMAN SCRIPTS
  
  [Note that this topic is dealt with differently in Braille
Mathematics Notation.] 

5.7.1. Single non-Roman letters or strings of letters occurring in
English context should be preceded by the non-Roman letter sign. 
Neither the ordinary letter sign nor the italic sign should be
used. 
    Examples: (pi); ms (theta);
STraIN (beta); (alpha beta).

5.7.2. In passages of three or fewer words of Greek or other
languages not using the Roman alphabet, occurring in English
context, each word should be preceded by the ordinary letter
sign. In passages of more than three words the double letter sign
should be used before the first word and the single letter sign
before the last word.  


                         6. MATHEMATICS 

                      6.1. CARDINAL NUMBERS

6.1.1. Cardinal numbers should be preceded by the numeral sign;
numbers with more than one digit require only an initial
numeral sign.
    Examples: 3; 62; 100. 


6.1.2. Omitted digits, however shown in print, should be 
represented in braille by the equivalent number of dot 3's.
    Examples: 12.1.197-
              4**7.
 
  But if print uses a single apostrophe to represent the first
two digits of a date, only one dot 3 is necessary in braille 
and it should follow the numeral sign. 
    Example: THE '45.
 
6.1.3. The influence of the numeral sign carries across
the hyphen, but not across any other punctuation or composition
sign that link two numbers in a string, except as provided in
6.1.2. 
    Examples: 1914-18; 1630(1); 1770?-1827; 1770-(?)1850;
12TH-18TH; secTION 47(1).

  However, the following are still possible (where "cab" and
"gag" are words).  
    8-cab traIN; 55-gag book.

  Where a compound number is divided onto two braille lines, the
numeral sign must be repeated at the beginning of the second line
after the hyphen.
    Example:                                        1914-
18.

  See also 6.1.9.

6.1.4. Braille should follow print in using the dash or the
hyphen when one of these is used in strings such as compound
dates, vital statistics, sports scores, odds, voting figures,
etc.   
    Examples: 1981-1990; 36-24-36; 36--24--36; 3-1; 3--1; 40-30; 
40--30. 

6.1.5. Abbreviated dates appear in various forms in print. 
In braille they should be coded with the numeral sign or letter
sign as required. They may not be divided at the braille line.
The oblique stroke and any other punctuation between numbers
should be avoided.  
    Examples: 8/9/36 or 8.9.36, 8.IX.36.
 
  When the second part of a compound date is suppressed in print,
the hyphen should be retained in braille, but written unspaced
from any following punctuation.  
    Example: (1882-). 

6.1.6. Times of the clock are coded using the numeral sign.
    Examples: 3 am; 5.30 p.m.; 08.00; 13.30 GMT; 1330

  The French form can be unspaced in Standard English Braille.
    Example: 10h25.
 
6.1.7. Telephone numbers consisting entirely of grouped figures
should be coded with the numeral sign, which should be repeated to
mark the beginning of each print group.

    Examples: 0733-370777; 388 1266/7; 0800 500 212.

  Where alternative numbers are shown in brackets after the main
number, or where brackets enclose an area prefix number, braille
follows a similar procedure.  
    Example: 233 1597(8); (081) 868 0765.
 
  It is desirable that telephone numbers should not be divided 
onto two braille lines. If division has to be made because of
length, this should be done before a numeral sign and a hyphen
should be inserted at the end of the first line.  

6.1.8. Groups of letters and figures, such as car registration
numbers, old style telephone numbers, gramophone record numbers,
etc., should be brailled as a string if unspaced in print, and
full stops, hyphens, oblique strokes and blank spaces, used in
print as mere separators, may sometimes conveniently be
disregarded, with the grouping simply indicated by repetition of
the numeral or letter sign. Such groups should not be divided at
the braille line unless they are very long.
    Examples: DER 526G; 33 CX 1234; ASD 527/8; M.1.; BBC-2;
HAM 1597.
 
  However, when separators are retained, care should be taken
over the use of the letter sign.  
    Examples: 3-CD set; 13/m.

6.1.9. When a hyphen joins two number strings, either or both of
which are of mixed denomination (for example times of the day,
dates, compound section numbers, etc.), the numeral sign should
be repeated after the hyphen.
    Examples: 5.30-6.30; 5-7.30; 6.30-7. But: 5-6.


                     6.2. CONTRACTED NUMBERS

6.2.1. In calendars, crossword puzzles, etc., where it is
desirable that 1- and 2-digit numbers should occupy the same
amount of space as one another, the following method of
contracting numbers (which may be written with or without the
numeral sign) may be adopted.  
    Dot 3 written in the same cell as the unit figure adds 10 to
the number:  11; 12; 10.
    Dots 3-6 written in the same cell as the unit figure adds
20: 22; 24; 20.
    Dot 6 written in the same cell as the unit figure adds 30: 
36; 39; 30.
    The numbers 40 to 49 are indicated by the unit figures being 
written as lower signs: 43; 47; 40.


                         6.3. DECIMALS

6.3.1. Decimals always require a numeral sign. 
    Examples: .7
              0.7
              8.93

6.3.2. Decimal coinage also uses the decimal point. 
    Examples: 8.75; $8.75.
 
6.3.3. When two numbers are joined by a hyphen and one or both
are decimals, the numeral sign should be repeated after the
hyphen.  
    Examples: 2-5.5; 2.2-5.5; 2.2-5.


                        6.4. FRACTIONS

6.4.1. Fractions are written with the numerator and denominator
as upper and lower signs respectively without an intervening
blank space or second numeral sign. The numerator 1 should not be
omitted.  
    Examples: 1/5; 3/8.

6.4.2. A mixed number must be treated as an undivided string. 
The fraction, which retains its numeral sign, immediately follows
the whole number.  
    Example: 1 3/16

6.4.3. Where mixed numbers are connected to other numbers by a
hyphen or dash in print, the numeral sign must be repeated after
the hyphen or dash and no separation sign is required after the
first number.  
    Examples: 3--5 1/2; 3-5 1/2; 3 1/2-5;  3 1/2-5 1/2.
 
6.4.4. A halfpenny is written as a fraction of a penny, as
in print. 
    Examples: 7 1/2p; 1/2p; 7 1/2d.
 
6.4.5. Where in stock exchange quotations, etc., the numerator of
a fraction is divided from the denominator by a hyphen (fraction
line) in print, and the fraction is spaced from the whole number, 
the whole expression should be written in braille as an ordinary
fraction.
    Example: 82 5-16.
 
6.4.6. When a fraction is printed with the numerator above the 
denominator, but with the letters of the ordinal termination 
added afterwards, the termination should be omitted in braille.  

6.4.7. In the denominator of a fraction, since it is written in
the lower part of the cell, the numerical comma should never be
shown in braille, even if it appears in print.


                    6.5. MATHEMATICAL SIGNS

6.5.1. If a number contains more than three figures, a comma is
often used in print to separate them into groups of three. If
shown in print, this comma should be represented in braille 
by the numerical comma (dot 3). The numerical comma should also
be used where print has a blank space to separate the groups of
figures.  
    Example: 4,500,000

6.5.2. A number consisting of four or more figures may be divided
after a numerical comma by a hyphen at the end of a braille
line, the remaining figures being written on the following line
without a numeral sign.  
    Example: 1,234,567.
 
  If a comma is not used in print, such a division should not be
made unless the number is very long. 

6.5.3. A space is normally required before operation and relation
signs in braille.  
    Examples:  1 + 2 - 3 = 0 
               4 x 3  2 = 6
               3 : 4 : 5
 
  However, these signs must be unspaced from preceding opening
brackets and quotation marks.  
    Example: ips (=inches per second).

  Expressions like the following should also be unspaced, and, if
they are followed by punctuation (as below), the separation sign
should be used.  
    Examples: [#alpha]-; 11+; 15 days+; [#alpha]---Very Good.

6.5.4. The mathematical separation sign (dot 6) should always 
be used to separate a fraction from following punctuation. It
should be used also between a whole number and punctuation where
the punctuation sign could reasonably be misread as the
denominator of a fraction. The separation sign is unnecessary in
cases where its omission would cause no confusion. 
    Examples: 
      1.
      2 1/2
      2 1/2.
      3 3/4
      4 5/16
      1066.

6.5.5. The subscript sign and superscript sign indicate that the
expression which follows is a subscript or superscript to the  
preceding expression. Indices which are whole numbers are 
brailled as lower numbers without the numeral sign. With the 
exception of chemical formulae, in literary braille it is not 
permissible to omit the subscript sign, as it often is in
mathematics notation. The use of these signs is not restricted to
mathematical expressions or contexts: for example, their use may
be required for special reference marks.
    Examples: 
      m^2 (m squared) 
      cm^3 (cm cubed) 
      x^-5 (x to the power minus five) 
      H2O (formula for water) 
      e^v 
      B12 (vitamin B12)
      msun (mass of the sun)
   For more complicated indices see Braille Mathematics Notation.
For the use of the capital sign in chemical formulae, see
Braille Science Notation.  


                     6.6. ORDINAL NUMBERS

6.6.1. Ordinal numbers are formed by adding the appropriate
endings to the cardinal numbers. 
    Examples: 1ST, 2nd, 3rd, 57TH

6.6.2. When an arabic number is followed by a foreign ordinal
termination, the abbreviation point should be used to separate
the figure from the termination, and contractions may not be
used. 
    Examples: 3eme; 3eme; 1er; 8vo; 1o
  
  Similarly, an abbreviation point should be inserted when an
Arabic number is followed by an English ordinal termination which
could otherwise be read as an extra digit. 
    Example: 22d


                      6.7. ROMAN NUMERALS

6.7.1. Roman numerals should be preceded either by the letter
sign or the capital sign, but the letter sign is generally used 
in the United Kingdom.
    Examples: v; XXXIV.

6.7.2. The letter sign must be repeated after a hyphen or a
dash connecting Roman numerals. 
    Examples: VIII-XIII; lxxxix-cxliv; VIII--XIII;
lv--lxxxix.

6.7.3. Cardinal Roman numerals may be followed in a string by 
the letter sign or the numeral sign, and stops used in print as
mere separators can generally be omitted (see 6.1.5, 6.1.8).
    Examples: XVa; VIc; Hamlet IV.2.

6.7.4. Roman numerals should be separated from their ordinal
terminations by the abbreviation point. Contractions may be used
in English terminations only. Note that both methods of coding
foreign accents are possible. 
    Examples: xTH; xxiST; Ier; XIIe; XIIeme; XIIeme


                     7. ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS 
 
                       7.1. PRINT ABBREVIATIONS

7.1.1. When a print abbreviation employs one or more abbreviation
points, braille should follow suit and no letter sign should be
used. 
    Examples: A.S.E.A.N.; B.Sc.(Econ.); cf.; D.Litt.;
Mus.Bac.; Ph.D.; U.N.E.S.C.O.; etc.; op. cit.

7.1.2. Where the abbreviation of a single word consists of more
than one letter, the letter sign is not required even when no
point appears in print. Note that for the purpose of this rule
"etc" is regarded as a single word.
    Examples: etc, ms, mss, nr, Rd 

7.1.3. Contractions may be used in English abbreviations if they
would have been permissible in the full word, provided they cannot
be mistaken for shortforms or other wordsigns and as long as other
rules for contractions are not violated.
    Examples: do (ditto); nat hiST; St (Saint or street); St.
(Saint or street); ad fIN.; att. gEN.; It. (Italian); nem. con.

  Where an abbreviation consists of two or more whole or part
words without abbreviation points presented in a single string,
the same conditions for contracting apply.
    Example: NatWeST

7.1.4. Braille should avoid using the letter sign and abbreviation
point in the same abbreviation string.
    Examples: M. Dupont; M Dupont; Mr X.; Mr X; rsvp.;
rsvp

7.1.5. In personal initials and postal codes braille should
follow print's spacing and its use or non-use of points.
Initials must be spaced from a following surname.
    Examples: CPE BaCH; C P E BaCH; C.P.E. BaCH; C. P. E.
BaCH; GBS; G.B.S.; EC4; S.W.1; W1N 6AA
 
  However, when two initials are joined by a hyphen and a point
appears only after the second, braille should insert a point
after the first letter also.
    Examples: J-P. S/ARtre; L-G. (Lloyd-George)

7.1.6. When an abbreviation consists of the initial letters of
words without points, the letter sign should be used.
    Examples: AIDS; am; ARCM; ASH; BBC; cgs; SOS; USSR; UNESCO;
VAT

  However, the letter sign is not required when an acronym
is written with the first letter in the string as a capital
and the rest as small letters, or when the entire acronym is
printed as an ordinary word; and in such cases contractions can
be used.
    Examples: Nato; Unesco; lasER; radAR.

7.1.7. When an abbreviation without stops consists of initial
letters and whole or part words which are pronounced as such, the
elements should be spaced, each being treated in accordance with
the above paragraphs.
    Examples: BA(Oxon); BEd; DipTP; MInstP
 
  However, if such a mixed abbreviation is pronounced letter
by letter, the letter sign is sufficient and no spaces need be
inserted.
  Example: BSc

7.1.8. Abbreviations may only be divided onto two braille
lines at a space.

7.1.9. Where the hyphen or oblique stroke separates single
letters in an abbreviation, and facsimile representation is
not essential, the letter sign should be used and the hyphen
or stroke should be omitted.
    Examples: D-G; A/C, c/o, I/O, R/T

  Where an oblique stroke is used in print to abridge a word,
it will often be necessary in braille to give the word in
full, rather than reproducing the oblique stroke method which
could be difficult to read. 
    Example: b/fast (breakfast)    not

7.1.10. Where a print abbreviation does not save space as
against grade 2 braille, the abbreviation should generally be
dispensed with.
    Examples: Mt. (Mount); nr. (near); pt. (part); Rt.
(Right); w. (with); wld. (world)
  
  But where, for example, manuscript is being reproduced, it
may be necessary to retain such print abbreviations, or to
explain them if they cannot be coded as they stand without
ambiguity in braille.

7.1.11. Where an abbreviation of a word is shown in print with
the terminal letter or letters written as a superscript, no
special indication of this is normally required in braille, and
all the letters can be treated on the same basis. A letter sign
should be used if the string of letters would otherwise be
ambiguous. Provided that the letter sign is not used,
contractions may be used according to 7.1.3. Paragraph 7.1.10 is
still applicable in this case.
    Examples: wTH (with)
             wh (which)

                    7.2. PRINT SYMBOLS

Ampersand
7.2.1. In braille the ampersand may be spaced or unspaced in
accordance with print. If print uses an ampersand in a foreign
language, braille should follow suit.
    Examples: M/ARks & SpENcER; B&B; &c (etc).

Arrows
7.2.2. The composite signs for arrows should be treated as words
for the purposes of spacing.
    Example:   TO/THE left,   TO/THE RIGHT.

Asterisk and Dagger
7.2.3. In braille a space is usually left before and after
the asterisk in a line of ordinary text. It is generally treated
as a word for the purposes of spacing with respect to adjacent
punctuation. A series of two or more asterisks should normally be
spaced from one another in braille. The same rules apply to the
dagger sign.
    Examples:
      Items mARkED * ARe free.
      [* exact numbER NOT KNOWn.]
      IN Greece*--AND surely

7.2.4. Where an asterisk is used to indicate a footnote, it
should normally be placed as in print with respect to
adjacent punctuation. When it is followed by a note number, it
should be written unspaced from the numeral sign. The asterisk,
or asterisk and number group, is spaced according to 7.2.3. The
same rules apply to the dagger sign (see also 9.4.2).

    Examples: 
      "AND SO TO/bED."*3
      (AS IN SHakespeARe.*4)

7.2.5. The braille asterisk may also be used to represent other
reference symbols occurring in print.  

7.2.6. A series of asterisks on a line alone in print should be
shown in braille by three asterisks centred on a line alone and
divided from one another by a single space. Centred asterisks
should be used in braille to indicate breaks in the text however
such breaks are shown in print, e.g. a line of asterisks or dots
or a blank line. A line of asterisks may begin or end a braille
page.  

7.2.7. Where one or more asterisks occur in print to denote a
presumed omission, the ellipsis should be used in braille.
    Examples: THEy travellED THROUGH Sumatra, Java, Bali, Lombok,
*** AND Timor.

  For omitted letters see 4.1.4. 

Commercial "at" @
7.2.8. The commercial sign for "at" @ should be represented in
braille by the word "at".  

Crosses
7.2.9. When a series of X's is used to represent kisses, the
appropriate number of    's should be brailled unspaced from each
other and without a letter sign.

7.2.10. Where print uses a cross between two breeds of animal or
two varieties of plant, etc., braille should use the cross sign.
As usual, this sign should normally be spaced on the left but not
on the right, unless a special display format is required, as in
a table, etc.
    Examples: Collie x Alsatian; Rosa x Felicita.

7.2.11. When it is clear that the symbol of the cross is being
used to signify death, it should be replaced by the two-space
sign "d.".  

Ditto
7.2.12. The ditto sign [#dot5 dot2] should be spaced as a word. 
When it occurs in contact with punctuation the separation sign is
not necessary. Where print uses a series of ditto signs, one will
generally suffice in braille.  

Hash
7.2.13. Where hash is followed by a number, a second numeral sign
is not necessary in braille. However, in this case hash may be
omitted in braille where its representation is not essential.
When hash is not followed by a number, it may not be omitted.  
    Examples: #8; #

Male and Female Symbols
7.2.14. The print symbols    ,    for male and female should be
shown in braille by the two-space signs "m." and "f."
respectively.


                       7.3. REFERENCES

7.3.1. The following rules apply to abbreviation and number
groups used in giving references; for example, to pages,
chapters, volumes, etc. in books, to acts, scenes and lines in
plays, and to chapters and verses in the Bible.

7.3.2. Abbreviations which follow the number are generally coded
according to the rules given in section 7.1, and are spaced or
unspaced from the number in accordance with print, except that,
where there is an abbreviation point in print, or the abbreviation
consists of two or more letters from the same word, so that there
is no letter sign in braille, the letter(s) of the abbreviation
must be spaced from the number in braille.
    Examples: 34 n, 34 n., 34n (note on page 34); 78 ff.,
78 ff, 78ff (78 and following pages); 25 pp (25 pages).
  
7.3.3. Abbreviations which precede the number are generally coded
according to the rules given in section 7.1.

  Abbreviations consisting of two or more letters from one word
should be spaced or unspaced from the number according to print. 
    Examples: Vol 6 (voloume 6); vol.3 (volume 3); CH5 (chapter
5); CHap. 7 (chapter 7); S/CH/ED. 6 (schedule 6); pAR.8 (paragraph
8); Pt 2 (part 2) (7.1.10 applies).

  Abbreviations consisting of a single letter or initials, or the
plurals of such abbreviations, should normally be brailled
unspaced from the number, and in this case the letter sign is
unnecessary. 
    Examples: p6 (page 6); p.7 or p. 7 (page 7); p5-13, p.5-13,
pp5-13, pp.5-13 (pages 5-13); V.9, V9 (volume 9); v.II (volume II);
r.26 (rule 26); s.45 (section 45); ss.12-15 (sections 12-15).

7.3.4. It is sometimes desirable to follow the print more closely
as regards spacing than provided for in the last paragraph of
7.3.3. 
    Example: c. 6 (chapter 6, as printed in statutes). 

7.3.5. Where print employs special symbols and braille
equivalents are available, the latter should be used.  These
should normally be unspaced from the number if they precede it in
braille.
    Examples:   3 (section 3);    5 (paragraph 5).

7.3.6. Where print uses abbreviations for books of the Bible, play
titles, etc., these should be retained. Braille should follow
print's use or non-use of the abbreviation point with single
letters or part words, but separators such as stops occurring
within number groups can be omitted in accordance with rules
6.1.5, 6.1.8 and 6.7.3. Print's spacing should be observed, and
strings should not be divided at the braille line except after an
abbreviation point or after a hyphen occurring in the print.
    Examples:
      Heb 6.9
      1 Cor.13.2
      RuTH 2.7
      Mk. 6.9-7.5
      Matt.III.12
      Job XXXVIII.2
      MacbeTH V i 8 or MacbeTH V.i.8
      Hamlet III iii.2

7.3.7. Where print uses both small and capital Roman numerals in
references, it may be necessary to use the capital sign in braille
to make the distinction (see 5.2.2); but Roman numerals should
never be converted to Arabic for this purpose.
    Example: RefER TO/ii, IV gEN/ER/ALLY, AND V.iii.2.

7.3.8. The braille reference signs p# v# CH# should not be used
where this would involve deviating from print with regard to the
spacing or form of the abbreviation, or to the presence or absence
of the abbreviation point. Of course, no such restriction on their
use applies to the writing of braille which is not derived from a
print original.

                   7.4. SCANSION AND STRESS

7.4.1. Dots 4-5      should be used to represent the print sign for
a short or unstressed syllable. Dots 4-5-6     should be used to
represent the print sign for a long or stressed syllable. In
general these signs should be brailled before the first vowel of
the syllable, regardless of where they appear in print.
Contractions may normally be used after these signs with the
exception of the wordsigns for US, IT and AS, and contractions
beginning with a righthand character. 
    Example: 
      The curfew tolls the knell of parting day
  
  For simplicity print often uses the long signs only. 
    Example: 
      The curfew tolls the knell of parting day

7.4.2. Dots 3-6    , preceded and followed by a space, should be used
to mark the end of a foot where this is shown in print. Dots 3-6
3-6     , preceded and followed by a space, should be used to mark a
caesura, or the end of a half-line in old English verse. Either
the foot sign or the caesura sign may begin or end a braille line. 
Where a foot sign occurs within a word, a hyphen followed by a
space is inserted after the syllable ending the foot.  
    Example:  
      Still stands the / forest pri-/meval, // the / murmuring /
        pines and the / hemlocks

7.4.3. When print uses a sign other than the long or short sign
to mark stress, the accent sign should normally be used in braille. 
    Example:  
      Still stands the forest primeval, the murmuring pines
        and the hemlocks

7.4.4. If the mark for stress is printed at the end of the stressed 
syllable, this arrangement can be followed in braille, and the
apostrophe rather than dot 4 should be used. A double apostrophe
should be used to mark secondary stress.  
    Examples: prime'val; COMmu''nica'tion.

7.4.5. Dots 5-6 should represent any mark used in print to 
show doubtful or variable quantity, 
such as the long and short quantity marks both 
appearing above the same syllable. 
    Example: still stands ...


                     7.5. UNIT ABBREVIATIONS

  [For further detail on units see Braille Mathematics Notation.]

7.5.1. Braille should use the same unit abbreviations as print,
including any punctuation, even when there is no general
agreement in print on their representation.  
    Examples: 
      3 ft. (3 feet) 
      8 L (8 litres)
      8 l (8 litres)
      2 m (2 metres or miles) 
      5 s (5 seconds)
      5 sec (5 seconds)
 
  However, when print uses a special symbol, the equivalent
braille sign should be used.  
    Example: 34% (34 percent).

  Braille should not use a unit abbreviation when print does 
not. 
  
  7.5.2. Units appearing before the number in print should be
brailled close up to the following numeral sign, however spaced 
in print. 
    Examples: 3; $2; f5. 

  Units appearing after the number in print should follow the
number in braille. Such units should be spaced in braille, apart
from the following which are unspaced:  
    Single-letter monetary units (which will require the capital
sign or the letter sign)
    The degree sign
    The minute or foot sign '
    The second or inch sign ''
    Examples: 55 g (55 grammes); 89p (89 pence); 6F50 (6
francs 50); 60 (60 degrees); 5' (5 minutes or 5 feet); 10'' (10
seconds or 10 inches).

7.5.3. Upper case letters should be shown by the capital sign. 
Each capital sign affects only the following letter. 
    Examples: 3 V (3 volts); 5 mA (5 milliamperes); 8 Hz (8 
hertz); 13 MW (13 megawatts). 

  However, in conventional informal abbreviations like the
following no capital signs should be used.  
    Examples: M.P.G. (miles per gallon); MPH (miles per hour).  

7.5.4. The letter sign should generally be used only where a
single lower-case letter abbreviation appears after the number in
an uncombined unit. This still applies when the abbreviation is
followed by an index or by punctuation, except that, where the
letter sign is used, a print stop should only be retained if it
marks the end of a sentence (see 7.1.4).
    Examples: 5c (5 cents); 8 m (8 miles); 13 m^2 (13 square
metres); 55 g. (55 grammes.); 89 kg (89 kilogrammes).

  However, in unit abbreviations consisting of initials without
stops, such as conventional informal abbreviations, the
letter sign is used according to the usual rules for general
abbreviations (section 7.1).
    Example: 30 cc (30 cubic centimetres)
  (See also the examples in 7.5.3.)

7.5.5. When a unit is not attached to a number, the same 
abbreviation should generally be used. However, where a currency
unit which normally precedes the number is referred to without a
number, the numeral sign is necessary.  
    Examples: The  rose; The $ fell.

7.5.6. Where print abbreviates large sums of money, braille
should follow suit. 
    Examples: 5m (5 million pounds); $3 bn or $3bn (3 billion
dollars).

7.5.7. The degree sign is used only with a number. Otherwise 
dg must be substituted. 
    Examples: 13 (13 degrees); 21C (21 degrees Celsius);
F (degrees Fahrenheit).

7.5.8. In combined units a dot 3 is used to separate the
individual unit symbols unless an oblique stroke or superscript
is present at that point.  
    Examples:  
      3 N m (3 newton metres) 
      5 N/m^2 (5 newtons per square metre) 
      8 m s^-2 (8 metre seconds to the power minus 2) 

7.5.9. The separation sign is not required after unit
abbreviations before following punctuation unless they end with
an index or degree sign. But it is required before following
punctuation after prime and double prime.
    Examples: 3 m; 5 m^2;  8; 13C; 5'10''.

7.5.10. The Greek letter mu ( ) for micro should be coded with dot
2. (Note: Mathematics notation uses dots 4-6 instead of dot 2.)  
    Example:  W (microwatts)

7.5.11. Where there is more than one number or unit in print, 
braille should follow suit. 
    Examples: 30 to 40; 30 to 40 m; 1 kg 597 g. 

7.5.12. Contractions may generally be used in unit abbreviations
according to the normal rules.
    Examples: 8 ins (8 inches); 1 in (1 inch); 1 in. (1 inch); 5
mins (5 minutes); 11 st (11 stones); 11 st. (11 stones).

7.5.13. A unit abbreviation which would precede the numeral sign
may precede the letter sign also.
    Examples: x (x pounds); $y (y dollars). 

7.5.14. Imperial currency should be brailled according to present
rules, and not according to those which were in force when the
currency was valid. Braille should therefore seek to follow print
practice as far as possible.  
    Examples: 1 17s 6d; 12s. 6; 2/6; 2/-. 

 
                        8. USE OF CONTRACTIONS 
 
                             8.1. GENERAL

8.1.1. When a contraction is itself the subject of discourse, it
may be desirable that the letters or word for which it stands
should be partly or fully written out.
    Examples: THE CONtracTION FOR INto SHOULD BE usED
              muST is NOT CONtractED IN muST/ARd.


                     8.2. SIMPLE UPPER WORDSIGNS

8.2.1. Simple upper wordsigns may be preceded or followed by
punctuation signs, and may be preceded by the italic sign and by
the contractions TO, INTO and BY.  
    Example: "YOU HAVE TO/GO!"
 
8.2.2. Letters or contractions should not directly adjoin these
wordsigns.  
    Examples: CHildlike; likeNESS; peoples; STillER; WHiCH/EVER; 
WITH/OUt. 

8.2.3. Simple upper wordsigns should generally be used before 
the apostrophe followed by d, ll, re, s, t, ve. 
    Examples: CAN't, PEOPLE's, THIS'll, YOU'd, YOU're, YOU's,
YOU've. 

  They should not be used in rarer colloquial forms. 
    Examples: more'n, yOU'm. 
  
  They should not be used after the apostrophe. 
    Examples: d'yOU, t'have.
 
8.2.4. These wordsigns may be used when joined by the hyphen in
compound words.  
    Examples: CHILD-LIKE; DO-IT-YOURSELF. 

  However, they may not be used before or after a hyphen in a
word divided at the braille line.  
    Examples: EVERy- TH/ING, furTHEr- more, GOOD- will, 
more- ovER, un- like, WHiCH- EVER. 

8.2.5. These contractions should generally be used whatever
the meaning of the word. 
    Examples: BUT AND bEN, CAN-CAN, gIN-AND-IT, HAVE A GO,
VERY liGHts, SO-AND-SO, watER/ING-CAN, WHisky-STILL, WILL AND 
teSTaMENT, WILL-o'-THE-wisp. 

  However, in some cases they should be avoided. 
    Examples: as (Roman coin); do, so (musical notes).

8.2.6. A simple upper wordsign should not be used before a full
stop or an interruptive dash if there could be reasonable doubt in
the context as to whether the character representing it should be
read as a wordsign or as a letter of the alphabet.
    Examples:
D. S. met H. L. BUT he nEVER met T. More.
M. spoke TO/P. BEFORE he spoke TO/yOU.
Tell me wh----.

Sequencing
8.2.7. The words AND, FOR, OF, THE, WITH, A should generally
follow one another without a space, even when a sense break or
natural pause is present.  
    Examples: 
      He is WITH/THE OFficER OF/THE watCH.
      THE ENd OF/A pERfect DAY.
      He lookED grim AND/OF/A sad DISposiTION.
      FOR/OF cOUrse ...
      IN AND OUT OF/THE room.
      HIM we TH/INk OF/AND love.
      FOR/AND AGAINST.
      THE book I WAS lookING FOR/THE oTHEr DAY.
      He WAS TH/OUGHT OF/WITH respect.

  However, a space should be left between such words when one of
them is part of a hyphenated compound word.
    Examples: OF- AND FOR-organisATIONs; uncallED-FOR AND OUT OF
ordER.

8.2.8. When any word in this group is preceded by the single or
double italic sign, it must be preceded by a space. 
    Examples:  
      He WAS ONE OF THE J/ONEses.
      THE correspondENt OF THE TIMEs.
      B/INyon's FOR THE FallEN.
      A CHorus OF FOR he's a jolly GOOD fellOW.

  But notice the following. 
    Example: 
BoTH nOW AND/FOR/THE next five yeARs.

  However, if only the first word of such a group is italicised, 
it may be written unspaced from the following word. 
    Examples:
      He WAS FOR/THE moTION.
      THROUGH AND OUT OF/THE tunnel.

8.2.9. If a capital sign or double capital sign intervenes
within a continuous group of the words AND, FOR, OF, THE,
WITH, A, a space should be left before such a sign.


                  8.3. SIMPLE UPPER GROUPSIGNS

8.3.1. The contractions AND, FOR, OF, THE, WITH, 
CH, GH, SH, TH, WH, ED, ER, OU, OW, ST, AR should generally be
used wherever the letters they represent occur. 
    Examples: afFOReST/ATION, ARrOW, bacCHanalia, deER, dERelict,
dOU/GH, EDict, faSHion, GHoST, neED, OFfice, OUtER, OWnER,
pEDdlED, prOF/OUND, roOF, SH/OW/ER, smooTHEd, sOFa, sOU/TH,
sOU/THErn, ST/AND/ARd, tOW/ARds, wAND/ER, WITH/ER. 

8.3.2. When in colloquial forms the apostrophe is intentionally
omitted in print, simple upper groupsigns should be used in the
following cases, but simple wordsigns and shortforms must not be
used.  
    Examples: hED, SH/ED, wED, wERe, yOUre (for he'd, she'd,
etc.).  

8.3.3. The contraction for SH should not be used in the 
exclamation demanding silence unless there is a plurality of s's
or h's. 
    Examples: sh! sSH! SHhh! 

8.3.4. In ordinal numbers the contractions ST and TH are used. 
    Examples: 1ST, 4TH. 

  When a letter is followed by the ordinal termination th, the  
th should be contracted and written unspaced from the letter,
even though contractions are not normally used after the letter
sign (see 5.5.4).
    Example: nTH. 


BLE and ING
8.3.5. These groupsigns may not be used at the beginning of a
word. However, they may generally be used in the middle or at
the end of a word wherever the letters they represent occur. 
They may not be used after a hyphen in a hyphenated compound
word, though they may be used at the beginning of a braille
line in a divided word. 
    Examples: adoraBLE, awn- INGs (divided at the braille
line), blemiSH, dINGhy, DIStINGuiSH, em- BLEm (divided at
the braille line), gINGham, INgle, INgram, INgratitude,
mER/INGue, noBLEr, ovER-INgratiatING, proBLEm, rabBLE, sINGe,
S/INGh, skiING, ski-ING, WHiSTlING.

8.3.6. The contraction for ING should be used whether the g is
pronounced hard or soft. 
    Examples: crING/ING, gING/ER, niGHtINGale, sING/ING. 

8.3.7. The contraction for BLE may not generally be used
before the letters a or n. 
    Examples: pitCHblENde, tablEAu. 

 
                 8.4. LOWER CONTRACTIONS

8.4.1. Any number of lower contractions and punctuation signs may
follow one another without an intervening space, provided that
the string includes an upper sign and that all other rules are
observed.  
    Examples: queEN-CONsort; "suDD/EN!"; TO/COMe in; 
"WHERE ARe we goIN'?" 

8.4.2. The presence of the italic sign, capital sign or line sign
does not affect the use of lower signs.  
    Examples: BY/CONsidER/ING, TO/be, DISen- tangle,
INTO/DISuse, WAS IT EN/OU/GH?;
      IT WAS A LovER AND HIS Lass
      WH/EN We WERE VERY YOUNG
      in./ EN/OU/GH--/

8.4.3. The contractions for BE, CON, DIS, EN and IN may not be
used at the beginning of a word before a hyphen occurring at the
end of a braille line. This even applies when they are in contact
with a letter of the alphabet or an upper contraction through a 
preceding hyphen or dash. 
    Examples: .............................. IT's SO--in-
DIStINct. ...................................... well-be-
havED. 

TO, INTO, BY 
8.4.4. These lower wordsigns should be written unspaced from the
word which follows, even when a sense break or natural pause is
present.  
    Examples: 
      BY/AND BY/he wENt TO/sCHool BY/bus. 
      IT WAS dividED INTO/at lEA/ST THree PARTs. 
      HIS pay WAS NOT INcrEAsED BY/AS MUCH AS THAT. 
      BY/AND lARge SHe STood BY/hER deciSION. 
      INTO/or OUT OF/THE hOUse. 
      SHe CAME BY/THE SHop yeST/ER/DAY. 
      IT WAS refERrED TO/yeST/ER/DAY. 
      C/OWs passED BY/FROM TIME TO/TIME.
      THIS is SOME/TH/ING I SHALL HAVE TO/GO INTO/TOMORROW. 
      Birds flew TO/AND fro.

8.4.5. These contractions may be sequenced to one another. 
    Examples:
      He WAS refERrED TO/BY/NAME. 
      THIS neEDs lookING INTO/TO/fINd THE cause. 

8.4.6. When one of these words is followed by be, enough, were,
his, in, was, the first word in the group should be contracted. 
    Examples:
      He wiSH/ED TO/be CONsultED BY/his FRIENDs.
      HAVE we gONE INTO/EN/OU/GH detail? 
      What THEy swore BY/was tomato sOUp. 
      We fell TO/in THE hiGH STreet. 
      THE rooms THAT I lookED INTO/wERe empty. 

8.4.7. These contractions may be used after open quotes, open
brackets and the dash. They may be used before the numeral,
letter and accent signs and before or after the capital and
italic signs.  
    Examples:
      "TO/ERr is human." 
      Up TO/1984. 
      He trEAtED US TO/eclairs.
      BY/default.
      x INTO/y does NOT GO.

8.4.8. These contractions must not be used as parts of words.  
    Examples: bygONE; INtoxicant; tOW/ARds. 

8.4.9. They may not be used in the following cases: before or
after the hyphen or apostrophe; before the ellipsis; before other
punctuation.  
    Examples: well-to-DO; to 'im; GO to ...; 
WHat is mEAnt by "squAR/ING THE circle"? 

8.4.10. They should not be used before mathematical signs. 
    Example: THE tempERature droppED FROM +2 to -3.

8.4.11. The two braille characters of the contraction for 
INTO must be contiguous on the same braille line. 

BE, WERE, HIS, WAS 
8.4.12. These wordsigns may be preceded by the italic or capital
sign. They may not be used in conjunction with any other sign.
(For the letter group BE see 8.4.14-17.) The signs for WERE, HIS
and WAS may not be used as parts of words.
    Examples:  
      He WAS plEAsED.
      AS YOU wERe!
      IT may be. 
      He is devotED TO/his bicycle. 
      A WOULD-be actor.
      He came--his siST/ER too.
      IT wasn't a wERewolf.

8.4.13. Although the lower contractions BE, WERE, HIS and WAS may
not be used in conjunction with a dash occurring in the same
braille line, they may be used if they are separated from the
dash by the ending of a braille line. 
    Examples: .............................. IT was--  
HIS CHoice. .................................. IT WAS
--his CHoice. 

BE, CON, DIS, COM 
8.4.14. The contractions for BE, CON and DIS may be used at the
beginning of a word or after a hyphen in a hyphenated compound
word, provided the letters they represent constitute a syllable. 
    Examples: BEcome; unbecomING; CONnect; DISconnect; DIStINct;
INdiST/INct; bettER; conCH; disc; diSHevellED; self-DISciplINe. 

8.4.15. BE, CON and DIS may not be contracted before or after the
apostrophe, or before the hyphen.  
    Examples: be'ave, dis'eARtEN/ED; be-all, con-man.
 
8.4.16. The contractions for BE, CON, DIS and COM, where
permissible in a complete word, should be used in a recognised
abbreviation of that word.  
    Examples: COMp. (composition), CONj. (conjunction), CONn.
(Connecticut), CONt. (continued), DISt. (district). 

  But where the letters forming the contraction are not followed 
by the next letter of the complete word, the contraction may not
be used.  
    Examples: mod cons; pros AND cons. 

8.4.17. The contractions for BE, CON, DIS, COM may only be used at
the beginning of a braille line in a divided word when they are
followed by other characters in the word, provided they would have
been permissible under rules 8.4.14 and 8.4.18 if the runover had
constituted a complete word.
    Examples: ac- COMpliSH; aphro- DISiac; Eliza- BE/THan;
ill- CONCEIVEd; in- DIStINct; re- CONcile; self- DISciplINe;
un- BElievER; wel- COMe; well- BElovED. But: ba- con; B/EN- dis;
WOULD- be.


8.4.18. The contraction for COM may be used at the
beginning of a word, but it need not form a syllable. 
    Examples: COMa; COMb; COMe; COM/FORt; BY/COMpARison; TO/COMe.

  But it must not be used when the letters CO are added to a
complete word to give a word of cognate meaning.
    Examples: comates; comINGle.

8.4.19. The contraction for COM must not be used in contact with
the apostrophe, hyphen or dash.  
    Examples: com'ST; IN-comER; moST--comely. 

  But COM may be contracted if separated from the dash by the
ending of a braille line.  
    Examples: .................................... don't be-- 
COMplacENt. ........................................ don't BE 
--complacENt. 

ENOUGH, EN, IN, IN 
8.4.20. The lower contractions for EN and IN should generally be
used wherever the letters they represent occur. 
    Examples: B/EN/ENdEN, ENgINe, femIN/INe, lIN/EN, pEN/INsula.

8.4.21. The contraction for EN may not be used when the letters
form a word or an element of a hyphenated compound word. 
    Examples: Aix-en-ProvENCE; CH/OU En-lai; en rOUte; en saga.

8.4.22. The signs which represent the words ENOUGH and IN may
generally be used whenever these words occur. But they may only
be used in conjunction with punctuation if the string includes a
letter of the alphabet or an upper contraction. 
    Examples:  
      He HAD ENOUGH--MORE THan EN/OU/GH. 
      THEy STayED WITH THEIR IN-laws. 
      "T/EA/CH-IN" WAS THE phrase he usED.
      ENOUGH's AS GOOD AS a fEA/ST.

EA and Double Letters
8.4.23. The contractions for EA, BB, CC, DD, FF and GG may only
be used when these letters occur between letters or contractions
in the same word written in one braille line. They must not begin
or end a braille line. They may be used before the accent sign. 
    Examples: aBBe, aDDs, bEAt, daGG/ER, sEAs;
but: add, easy, moTH- eatEN, pea- nut, sea.

8.4.24. The contraction for EA and the double letter contractions
should not be used before or after the apostrophe or hyphen. 
    Examples: cliff's, 'ead, egg-SHell, robb'd, sea'orse. 

EA  
8.4.25. In general the EA contraction should be used whenever 
EA occurs within a word. 
    Examples: acrEAge, AR/EAs, CHangEAbilITY, crEAte, crEAtivITY,
delIN/EAte, EuropEAn, FOReseEAbly, idEAliSTic, idEAs, laurEAte,
likEA/BLE, lIN/EAge, lIN/EAl, mallEA/BLE, milEAge, miscrEAnt,
nausEAtING, ocEAnic, pagEAnt, pEAcEA/BLE, pERmEA/BLE, pERmEAte,
ratEA/BLE, rEAlITY, rosEAte, sEAs. 

8.4.26. When words beginning or ending with EA form parts of 
unhyphenated compound words, the EA should be contracted,
provided it is medial.
    Examples: moTH/EAtEN, norTH/EA/ST, sEAman, spEAkEAsy,
sprEAdEAgle, tEA/TIME.  

8.4.27. The contraction for EA should not be used when the
letters belong to two distinct syllables and the a does not begin
a suffix, or when the form of a root word would be excessively
distorted.  
    Examples: aurora borealis, BEatific, gENealogy, habeas
corpus, hanseatic, Neapolitan, orgeat, pancreas, pINeapple. 

 
                    8.5. COMPOSITE WORDSIGNS

8.5.1. The contraction for WORD should be used wherever the
letters it represents occur.
    Examples: FOReWORD, sWORD, WORDiNESS, WORDsworTH.

  However, the contractions for UPON, THESE, THOSE and WHOSE
should only be used where they retain their meanings as whole
words.
    Examples: HERE/UPON, WHERE/UPON, WHOSEsoEVER; but: cOUpon,
Dupont, hypoTHEses, THoseby.

8.5.2. The following contractions should generally be used
wherever the letters they represent occur: CANNOT, HAD, MANY,
SPIRIT, WORLD, THEIR.  
    Examples: diSPIRIT/ED, HADn't, G/ER/MANY, RoMANY, THEIRs,
WORLDly. 

Dot 5 Contractions
8.5.3. In general the following dot 5 contractions should be used
wherever the letters they represent occur: DAY, FATHER, KNOW,
LORD, MOTHER, QUESTION, RIGHT, WORK, YOUNG, CHARACTER, THROUGH,
OUGHT.  
    Examples: acKNOWlEDge, aRIGHT, bOUGHT, CHARACTERise,
CHARACTERiSTic, dOUGHTy, drOUGHT, FATHERly, fOUGHT, LORDly,
midDAY, playwRIGHT, QUESTIONnaire, RIGHTeOUs, sMOTHER,
THROUGH/OUt, WORK/SHop, YOUNG/ER. 

8.5.4. The contraction for EVER may only be used when the stress
is on the first e and the letter group is not preceded by an e or
i.  
    Examples: lEVER, fEVER, nEVER, sEVER, sEVERal; but: BElievER,
pERsevERe, revERbERate, revERe, sevERe, sevER/ITY. 

8.5.5. The contraction for HERE may only be used when the letters
it represents are pronounced as one syllable with the h aspirated. 
    Examples: adHERE, HEREto, HERE/WITH; 
but: hEResy, sphERe. 

8.5.6. The contraction for NAME may only be used when the letters
it represents are pronounced as one syllable. 
    Examples: NAMEly, NAMEsake, unNAMEd; 
but: ENamel, ornaMENT, unamENdED.
 
8.5.7. The contraction for ONE should in general only be used 
when all three letters it represents are pronounced as one
syllable.  
    Examples: alONE, bONE, dONE, gONE, lONEly, ST/ONE, telephONE; 
but: anemone, bayonet, colonel, phonetic, sooneST.

  However, note the following exceptions. 
    Examples: hONE/ST, hONEy, mONEtARy, mONEy, phONEy.
 
8.5.8. The contraction for PART should generally be used wherever
the letters it represents occur.  
    Examples: aPARTheid, PART/ERre, PARTial, PARTiculAR, PARTook, 
rePARTee, sPARTan. 
  
  However, the TH or THE contractions should be used in
preference in words where TH is pronounced as a single sound. 
    Examples: P/AR/THian, P/AR/THEnon.

8.5.9. The contraction for SOME should be used wherever the 
letters it represents form a definite syllable of the basic word. 
    Examples: CHromoSOME, hAND/SOME, hAND/SOMEr, hAND/SOME/ST; 
but: blossomED, gasometER, ransomED, somERsault. 

8.5.10. The contraction for TIME should only be used when the 
letters it represents are pronounced as the word "time". 
    Examples: mariTIME, SOME/TIMEs, TIMEr, TIMEs, TIMEx; 
but: cENtime, cENtimetre, MortimER. 

8.5.11. The contraction for UNDER should be used except when 
the letters it represents are immediately preceded by the vowels
a or o.  
    Examples: blUNDER, fUNDER, TH/UNDER, UNDERtake; but:
bOUND/ER, laundER, maundER.  
  
  In addition it should not be used when only the un is a prefix.
    Example: undERivED. 

8.5.12. The contraction for THERE may only be used in words of  
which the word "there" forms a component part. 
    Examples: THERE/ABOUTs, THERE/AFTER, THEREfrom; 
but: eTHErEAl, smiTHEreENs. 

8.5.13. The contraction for WHERE should generally be used
wherever the letters it represents occur.
    Examples: noWHERE, WHERE/UPON; but: WH/ERe'ER, WH/ER/EVER. 

 
                   8.6. COMPOSITE GROUPSIGNS

8.6.1. Contractions formed with dots 4-6, 5-6 and 6 should
generally be used wherever the letters they represent occur
except at the beginning of a word.  
    Examples: 
    bLESS/ING, cANCEl, dANCEr, ENhANCEd, mOUNTaIN, pERsuaSION,  
sOUND, wOUND/ED. 
    basTION, ceMENT, GuIN/NESS, INcONGruOUs, INfIN/ITY, laITY,
mONGoose, sIN/FUL/NESS, spONGe, TH/ENCE.  
    creATION, rATION/ALLY, reALLY, rotATION, squALLY.  

8.6.2. These contractions may not follow the apostrophe. 
    Examples: bo'ness; grey'OUnd (greyhound); 'OUnd (hound); 
'tion! (attention). 

8.6.3. These contractions may generally be used after the hyphen
where a word has been divided between two braille lines. 

  However, in a hyphenated word appearing wholly on one print
line they must not be used after the hyphen. This even applies
when a midline hyphen in print happens to occur at the end of the
line in braille.  
    Examples: CHannel-less, cre-aTION, ONE-ness, refER-ENce.

8.6.4. The contraction for ONG should be used whether the g is
pronounced hard or soft. 
    Examples: lONGevITY, mONGrel, prONG, spONGe, uncONG/ENial.

8.6.5. The contraction for NESS should not be used in feminine
endings.  
    Examples: bARoness, CHieftaINess, citizENess, govERness,
lioness, mAR/CHioness. 

8.6.6. The contraction for ITY should not be used in words like
the following. 
    Examples: fruity, hoity-toity, raBBity. 

 
                        8.7. SHORTFORMS

8.7.1. Shortforms can in general be used wherever they occur as
whole words, whatever their meaning.  
    Examples: ACCORDING (agreeing, granting); LETTER (epistle,
one who lets, etc.); MUST (obligation, mould, new wine, etc.);
QUICK (alive, fast).  

8.7.2. They may be preceded and followed by additions provided
there is no interference with spelling, the basic word retains
its original meaning, and the resultant word could not be
mistaken for another word. 
    Examples: CHILDREN's, get-TOGETHER, GOODies, GREATeST,
LETTER/ED; but: blINdED, declAR/ATION, muST/ARd, SH/OUldER. 

8.7.3. Shortforms composed of the first letters of a word 
(e.g. AFTER, BLIND, FRIEND) may not be used before a vowel when the
resulting combination of letters could be mistakenly pronounced
as a word. 
    Examples: aftEReFFects, BEfriENdED, blINdING; but: BLINDfold.

8.7.4. Shortforms may not be divided, but, if occurring at the 
end of a braille line, may be joined by a hyphen to additions on
the following line. 
    Example: IMMEDIATE- ly

  They may also be used at the beginning of a braille line in
a divided word. 
    Example: pre- CONCEIVEd

8.7.5. It is sometimes advisable for names, words or
pronounceable letter-groups, when they could be confused with
shortforms in braille, to be preceded by the letter sign. 
    Examples: Al-AzAR; Al CapONE; Al Fayyum;
al fresco; M/IN OF Ag AND FiSH; hm.

8.7.6. When confusion would occur in proper names containing 
letters which make up shortforms but do not stand for such, these
names should be preceded by the letter sign and no contraction
should be used within a complete name.  
    Examples: Afyon; but: S/CHneidER.


                        8.8. PREFERENCE

8.8.1. Preference should normally be given to contractions which
cause a word to occupy fewer cells, unless this would result in
serious distortion.
    Examples: advANCEd, aRIGHT, basTION, dANCEr, happiNESS,
meAND/ER, NAMEd, TIMEr, vENgeANCE, WITH/ER; but: tablEAu.

8.8.2. The contractions for AND, FOR, OF, THE, WITH should be
used in preference to other contractions, provided their use does
not waste space.  
    Examples: baTHEd, efFORt, OFfER, oTHEr, THEatre, THEn; but:
TH/ENCE. 

8.8.3. Simple upper groupsigns should be used in preference to
simple lower groupsigns, provided their use does not waste space.  
    Examples: afFORd, cobBLEr, cOFfee, feAR, gabBLEd, neARly,
nucleAR, rabBLE, sacCH/AR/INe, wEDdING; but: DIStINct, DISturbED.

  However, in some unhyphenated compound words, or words
beginning with a prefix, it is preferable to use a lower
groupsign instead of an upper, so as to avoid bridging.
    Examples: BEdraGGlED, BEratED, eGGhEAd, flEAriDD/EN, tEAroom.

8.8.4. Simple groupsigns should generally be preferred to
composite contractions, provided their use does not waste space. 
    Examples: adhER/ENt, adhER/ER, cohER/ED, COMmENcED, COMponENt,
CONgo, CONgratulate, CONgruITY (as contrasted with INcONGruITY),
eFFulgENt, expERiENcED, fENcED, gaTHErED, haDDock, hER/ED/ITY,
INfluENcEA/BLE, poisonED, prisonER, SHadOW, silENcER, sliTHE/rED,
spENcER, telephonED, tonER, wEA/THErED.

  However, if the form of the word would otherwise be distorted,
composite contractions should be used.  
    Examples: cONEy, limbLESS, midDAY, STrONGhold, WHEREas.

8.8.5. Contractions should not be used which would upset the
usual pronunciation of words.  
    Examples: asTHma not aSThma, creATION not crEA/TION,
diSHevellED not DIShevellED, gINGham not gIN/GHam, isTHmus not
iSThmus, poSThumOUs not posTHumOUs.


                         8.9. BRIDGING

Prefixes
8.9.1. When a prefix is added to an English word to form another
word of the same part of speech and with a meaning closely
related to that of the original word, a contraction should not be
used to bridge the prefix and the remainder of the word. 
    Examples: comate, denATIONalise, disulphide, INessENtial,
misheAR, mistERm, predeST/INe, predomINate, react, readmit,
redOU/BLE, sublet.  

8.9.2. In cases not covered by 8.9.1 such bridging contractions
may be used.  
    Examples: dEDuce, dENomINator, dENote, dERail, dERange, 
EDict, miSTake, prEDicaMENT, prEDicTION, prERogative, prOFile,
prOF/OUND, prOFuSION, rENew. 

8.9.3. Except in the case of the contraction for EA it is usually
not advisable to take advantage of a prefix in order to use a 
contraction which could not have been used in the original word. 
    Examples: DIS/INgENuOUs, electroENcephalogram, unblemiSH/ED,
unfulfillED, unlessonED; but: DIS/EAse, unEAtaBLE. 

Suffixes
8.9.4. Generally speaking, a contraction may bridge a word and  
its suffix. 
    Examples: borEDom, dukEDom, freEDom, orangERy, savagERy. 

  However, bridging contractions should be avoided in certain
cases.  
    Examples: biscuity, orangeade, kniGHthood. 

Compound Words
8.9.5. Contractions should not be used to bridge the elements 
of compound words. 
    Examples: bottleneck, hEAddress, hideaway, INdiaruBB/ER,
INsofAR, kettledrum, lONGhAND, paINstakING, STateroom. 

8.9.6. The contractions for CH, GH, SH, TH, WH should not 
be used when the h is aspirated at the beginning of a clearly
marked syllable. 
    Examples: cARthorse, cOWhERd, eGGhEAd, grasshoppER,
STrONGhold, sweetheARt.  

Diphthongs
8.9.7. The contractions for EA, ED, EN, ER should not be used
when the e or a forms part of the diphthongs ae or oe, whether
printed as such or not. 
    Examples: diaeresis, ENcyclopaedia, Judaean, Liliaceae, 
maenad, Phoenicians, phoenix. 

8.9.8. These contractions should not be used after a or o in
Welsh names because of the distinctive pronunciation of ae and oe
in Welsh.  
    Examples: Betws-y-coed, Blaenau FfeST/INiog, CaernARvon. 

8.9.9. These contractions should not be used when the letters 
ae, oe or ue represent a, o or u with umlaut. 
    Examples: BaedekER, GoerING, Gruenfeld, S/CHoenbERg.

  However, when this is not the case, these contractions may be
used.  
    Examples: BauER, FeuERbaCH, MoERan. 


                      8.10. ENGLISH NAMES

8.10.1. The general rules on the use of contractions apply. Care
should be exercised not to use contractions which would
contribute to the mispronunciation of names.

8.10.2. Simple upper wordsigns may be used for proper names (but
see 8.2.6).
    Examples: THomas MORE, WILL SHakespeARe, SaINt-JUST, RobERt
CHILD, William Grant STILL.  

8.10.3. Simple groupsigns should generally be used in English 
proper names, subject to 8.10.1.
    Examples: AnTHony, CaSTlerEA/GH, CHaTHam, COMbes, CONrad,
CoSHam, LanGHam, LanGHolm, SOU/TH/ENd, THElma.  
  (For other examples see Appendix III.)

8.10.4. The contractions for CC and CH must not be used in names
where Mac or Mc forms a prefix meaning "son of".  
    EXAMPLES: McCall, MacConnaCHie, MacHattie, McHuGH. 

8.10.5. The contraction for CON should not be used in names
having the O' prefix.
    Examples: O'Connor, O'Connell. 

8.10.6. Composite contractions may be used as the whole or part
of English proper names, subject to 8.10.1.
    Examples: B/RIGHTon, DAY, Dolittle, GOOD, Goodge
STreet, GOODwIN, GREATorex, HaDDon (see 8.8.4), HADley, LITTLE,
LITTLEwood, LORD, MiSTress QUICKly, MUCH W/ENlock, SaundERs,
SomERset, W/ALLY, YOUNG.


                8.11. FOREIGN WORDS AND NAMES

8.11.1. Foreign words and phrases, sentences, titles, names,
etc., may generally be contracted, whether or not italicised or
placed in quotes. The general rules on the use of contractions apply.
Care should be exercised not to use contractions which would
contribute to the mispronunciation of words.
    Examples: ANDreas; Antigone; AntINous; BocCH/ER/INi;
Bundestag; CH/ARleroi; DaCHshund; delegATION; DiaGHilev; ediTION;
ex PARTe; GaSThOF; GoeTHE; L/EN/INgrad; Liebestod; Llandaff;
Montreal; nATION (French); reale; ReiCHstag; STadtholdER; "taBLE
d'hote"; televiSION; Villeneuve; W/ENCEslas.

8.11.2. Extended pieces of foreign text (e.g. a whole paragraph)
are, however, better left entirely uncontracted. 

8.11.3. Contractions are not used in text employing the special
signs for accented letters (Appendix II). 


                     8.12. EARLY ENGLISH

8.12.1. In general, passages in English written after about 1300
may be contracted. However, the following list demonstrates the
need for extreme care.

    Examples: acrosse (not ACROSSe); agaINe (not AGAINe); boTHE
(both); DAYnty (dainty); doleFULl (doleful); ffirST (not fFIRST);
fful (full); FOR/THe (forth, to avoid confusion with the words
"FOR/THE"); gENtilLESSe; gENtlenes (gentleness); haDDe (not
HADde); hEA/THE/NESSe; HIMSELFe (not himselfe); lOUe (love);
moneTHE (month); ONEly (only); OU/ER (over); sONEs (sons); soone
(not soONE); suCHe (not SUCHe, which is a variant spelling of
"she"); swolewiTH (swallows); WORLDe; yoonge (not yoONGe); yOUre
(to avoid confusion with yre, which is a variant spelling of
"ire").

8.12.2. The shortform "al" ("also") should not be used in
passages where it might be read as a variant spelling of "all". 

8.12.3. Where the special old English letters are used (see
Appendix I (C)), and in passages written before about 1300,
permissible contractions are greatly restricted.  


       8.13. STAMMERED, LISPED AND SLURRED WORDS

8.13.1. A hyphen should be used in braille to divide stammered 
syllables regardless of whether print uses a hyphen or a dash.
The letter(s) or contraction preceding and following the hyphen
should be identical.  
    Examples: b-b-because, g-ghoST, gr-grOUND, lea-leave, m-MUST,
TH-THese, w-what, WH-WHat, WH-WH/ERe.

8.13.2. Stammered words should not be preceded by the letter sign
and should not be divided at the braille line unless at least
three stammered syllables appear on the first line.  

8.13.3. For the sake of clarity simple wordsigns should be 
avoided in stammered words. 
    Examples: c-can, c-can't, g-go, TH-THis, w-was, w-will. 

8.13.4. If print does not separate the stammered or slurred
letters of a word, a hyphen should not be inserted in braille. 
    EXAMPLES: cooooountry, gggood, lllittle, loooong, siSTerrrr.

8.13.5. In transcribing lisped or slurred words the TH
contraction should be used, but not THE. 
    Examples: TH/ENotaph (cenotaph), sisTH/ER (sister), 
THuTHpEN/THe (suspense). 

                        8.14 WORD ENDINGS

  8.14.1. Word endings, which occur frequently in dictionaries and
grammar books, and also elsewhere, are generally prefixed in print
by a hyphen or swung dash, for which a hyphen should normally be
used in braille.
  8.14.2. The following contractions may not be used at the
beginning of a word ending: BLE, ING, EA, the double letter
contractions, contractions beginning with dots 4-6, 5-6 or 6, and
all simple wordsigns; but subsidiary contractions may be used.
    Examples: -aTIONal, -blED, -ccio, -ean, -ENce, -INg, -OUnt.

8.14.3. The contractions for BE, CON, DIS, COM may only be used
at the beginning of a word ending under the same conditions as at
the beginning of a runover in a divided word (see 8.4.17); in
addition COM cannot be contracted after a hyphen (see 8.4.19).

8.14.4. Where the italicised ending of a word stands alone
and is preceded by a hyphen, the italic sign should follow the
hyphen.  
    Example: "WORDs ENdING WITH -INg."

  The letter sign can often be substituted for the combination  
of hyphen and italic sign. 
    Example: "WORDs ENdING WITH -INg."

8.14.5. All word endings must contain an upper sign. The italic
sign does not count as an upper sign for this purpose.



                      9. LAYOUT AND BOOK WORK

                             9.1. GENERAL

9.1.1. The paragraphs of section 9 are intended to provide guidance 
in matters of layout. Some diversity will always exist where
formatting procedures are concerned.  

9.1.2. It may be advisable to contact one of the principal
publishers of braille before tackling transcriptions which
involve particularly complicated layout procedures, e.g. tables,
genealogies, concrete poetry, elaborate notes.  

9.1.3. In interline transcriptions it may be inadvisable to
use blank lines. Thus certain procedures outlined below may have
to be modified.  

9.1.4. The page information line, which should appear at the top
of each braille page, should contain, if at all possible, all of
the following four items: the print page number (which should
occupy the first cells of the line); the lowest ranking meaningful
title, abbreviated as necessary, which may be that of the book
itself, or of a section of it; the lowest ranking meaningful
divisional number or number group; and the braille page number
(which should occupy the last cells of the line). It should aim to
be as informative as the space available permits. The first three
items of information should relate to the material appearing on
the last line of the braille page in question, and if this last
line contains only the print page turn (see 9.1.5), it is the new
print page number which should be shown on the information line.
The first item should consist of a single number, and not a range.
The order of the second and third items will depend on whether the
number or number group is that of the title in question, or
whether it is subordinate to it. A title page does not require a
page information line, and there are other situations where not
all four items would be appropriate.

9.1.5. Where print page turns are shown, the print page indicator
should be followed (unspaced) by the new print page number, and
this combination, which should be centred on a line alone, may
appear on any line of a page except the page information line. 

9.1.6. Several types of heading are available in braille: 
    (1) Centred heading; 
    (2) Cell 1 side heading, preceded by a blank line, centred  
        heading or page information line, and followed by a cell
        3 paragraph; 
    (3) Cell 3 side heading followed by a cell 3 paragraph; 
    (4) Cell 3 side heading followed by a full stop, a short dash
        and the continuation of the text. 
  Italicised versions of types (2), (3) and (4) are also available;
though when type (4) is italicised, the short dash is not
required in braille unless it is used in print.
  These types of heading may be used to indicate diminishing
levels of importance, the italicised version of a heading usually
indicating a higher level of importance than the unitalicised
version. 

9.1.7. Where print uses black spots, dashes, hyphens, squares, 
bars or stars before the items in a series of points each
starting on a new line, braille should omit the print symbols and
begin each point in cell 5 with runovers in cell 1. 

9.1.8. When signs are borrowed from a specialist code or have 
to be invented, they should be listed on a special signs page
at the beginning of each volume, unless the volume contains only 
prefatory or concluding matter in which the special signs do
not occur. This page should refer to the whole book and therefore
be the same in each volume. However, if the number of signs from
a specialist code is sufficiently large, reference should rather
be made to the relevant codebook. 


                          9.2. BOOK WORK

9.2.1. In a braille transcription consisting of two or more
volumes, the first volume, besides containing the regular contents
page for the volume itself, should also include a complete
contents list covering the whole work, giving print and, as far as
possible, braille page references. Such a complete contents list
is not necessary if the book is divided into chapters or sections
which have numbers, but no titles. If the book is in only one
volume, there will of course be only one contents list, which
should include both print and braille page references. The absence
of a contents page in print is not a sufficient reason for not
having one in braille.

9.2.2. All dust jacket material from the print edition of a book
should normally be reproduced in the braille transcription.

9.2.3. The International Standard Book Number of each book
transcribed into braille should appear in the braille edition.

9.2.4. On the outer cover of each braille volume, both in braille
and (on the spine, where possible) in print, there should be a
clear indication of the following: the author (normally); the
title of the work (in abbreviated form, where necessary); the
braille volume number; and the total number of volumes in the
work.

9.2.5. In the braille edition of all alphabetically arranged
reference works the first and last headings of material in each
volume should be indicated in braille on the outer cover of that
volume.


                    9.3. CORRESPONDENCE

9.3.1. The print layout of letters should be followed whenever
practicable. 9.3.2 may be adopted where no print model is
available. 

9.3.2. The lines of the address at the head of a letter should
all begin in the same cell and the longest line should end in
the last cell of the braille line. When the recipient's name and
address is written above the salutation, each line should start 
in cell 1. After a blank line, the salutation should begin in
cell 1. Paragraphs within the letter should start in cell 3.  
After a blank line, the valediction should begin in cell 1. The  
signature and/or subscript, which may be divided onto more than 
one line, should follow in cell 1. Punctuation should not be
added at line ends when there is none in print.

9.3.3. If the valediction and/or name and address follow the
letter after a short dash in print, the same arrangement may 
be used in braille. 

9.3.4. The address, date, telephone number, salutation and
signature must not be separated by the turn of the braille page  
from at least one line (or part of a line) of the text of the
letter. This may necessitate leaving several lines blank at the
bottom of a page.

9.3.5. Where a letter is printed in italics, these are often not
necessary in braille. When quotation marks or italics are
required, they should be opened before each braille line of
address, date, valediction, etc. 


                          9.4. NOTES
 
9.4.1. Notes may be dealt with in a number of ways, depending on
their character, length and frequency, and the context in which
they occur. The guidelines given below might be modified for notes
attached to tables and diagrams, or occurring in magazines and
short documents.

9.4.2. Within text the asterisk should be used to indicate a
note. If there are two kinds of note, the dagger may also be
used. The note number, if required, should follow the asterisk or
dagger without a space. When print gives each note in a work a
unique number, braille should reproduce print's numbering. 
(See also 7.2.4.)

9.4.3. Only brief unnumbered referential notes may be placed
within the text in square brackets, and such notes do not require
reference symbols as provided in 9.4.2.

9.4.4. Notes may appear at the ends of paragraphs to which they
refer, provided that they are marked off sufficiently clearly
from surrounding text by means of indentation, blank lines or
some other device. 

9.4.5. Notes should never appear at the foot of the page in
braille, as they quite commonly do in print. They may be gathered
together at the ends of chapters or articles within a volume, but
only if this arrangement is adopted in print. If not lengthy or
numerous, they may appear on separate notes sheets at the ends of
the volumes which contain the text to which they relate. But
substantial bodies of notes are best placed in separate volumes or
pamphlets, provided that any such volume or pamphlet contains at
least thirty sheets. In order to achieve this minimum, other
ancillary material, such as appendices, bibliography and index,
should, if necessary, be included with the notes.

9.4.6. If the note is indented (see 9.4.4), the note number
should begin in cell 5; otherwise in cell 1. The page and line
references should form a string and should follow the note number
after a blank space. The text of the note should follow the
reference. The margin for runovers should be set 2 cells deeper 
than the note number, and internal paragraphs should begin 2
cells further in than this margin. 
    Example:
[Cell 1] 13 p89.21 Text of note running over to
[Cell 3]   next line.
[Cell 5]     New paragraph within note running over to
[Cell 3]   next line.

9.4.7. There are, however, circumstances in which notes may be
brailled as normal paragraphs, e.g. when they are printed as such
in normal type, as at the end of chapters or articles; or when
they are keyed to a reference point (such as a verse line number)
other than braille page and line numbers; or when they appear in a
volume or pamphlet which contains no text; or when they are
appended to a table or diagram.

 
                     9.5. PARAGRAPHS

9.5.1. Normally, a new paragraph in braille should begin in cell
3 of a new line, however shown in print. 
  Only where space is at a premium should three blank spaces
within a braille line be used to indicate a new paragraph.

9.5.2. Where paragraphs are introduced by a number or letter,
the new line cell 3 method must be used. A full stop should be
inserted in braille after the number or letter where print has no
punctuation. In the case of lettered paragraphs the letter sign
should be used even when there is a full stop. 

9.5.3. Hanging paragraphs in braille should begin in cell 1 and
runovers should be in cell 5. A new paragraph within a hanging
paragraph should begin in cell 7. 


                         9.6. PLAYS

9.6.1. The names of speakers (even if abbreviated) should be
italicised, both at the beginning of speeches and (if printed in
special type, for example in capitals) in stage directions also,
but not where they occur in the text of the dialogue. 

9.6.2. Stage directions, even when italicised in print, should
not be italicised in braille, but they should be enclosed in
square brackets. This applies also to descriptions at the  
beginning or end of a scene. The square bracket should be
reopened for each new paragraph.  

9.6.3. When a stage direction is set out on a line or lines alone
in print, it should start in cell 3 of a new line. When the
dialogue is resumed a new line should be taken starting in cell
3.  

9.6.4. Each speech, whether in prose or verse drama, should
begin with the speaker's name in cell 3 of a new line. Print
punctuation should be retained after the speaker's name, but in
the absence of any punctuation a full stop should be added in
braille. The first word of dialogue or stage direction should
follow in the same line after one blank space. 

9.6.5. Each speech in prose or in verse brailled using the
line sign method should be treated as a paragraph.  

9.6.6. A change from prose to verse, or vice versa, within a
speech in a play is normally marked by a new paragraph. 

9.6.7. Where a direction such as "sings" ends the first line of a
song, it should be written within square brackets immediately
before the words to be sung.  

9.6.8. If two speakers share a verse line, this should be
indicated by leaving 3 blank cells after the name of the second
speaker.  
    Example:
  LEN. Good morrow, noble sir!
  MACB.   Good morrow, both!

                          9.7. POETRY

Line-by-Line Method
9.7.1. It is recommended that this method should normally be used
for poetry.  

9.7.2. Each new stanza or paragraph (except the first) may be
preceded by a blank line, with its first line beginning in cell 1;
alternatively, each stanza or paragraph may start in cell 3 of a 
new line. Subsequent lines of poetry should begin on a new
braille line in cell 1. If the verse line is too long for one
braille line, the runover should begin in cell 5.  

9.7.3. When the second part of a verse line is written on a
separate line in print to mark the beginning of a new paragraph,
this second part should begin in cell 11 of a new line in
braille. Runovers of either part of the line should begin in cell
5.  

Facsimile Method
9.7.4. This method is a modification of the line-by-line method:
blank lines are left between stanzas as in print; print
indentation is copied; each line, including the first line of a
stanza, begins in cell 1 unless indented in print. 

9.7.5. More than one space may be left between words in order to
convey the shape of the poem.  

9.7.6. Lines which are too long to fit on a single braille line
have the break marked by an unspaced facsimile hyphen (dot 5),
which follows the normal hyphen when a word has to be divided. 
The runover begins two cells in from the start of the verse line.

9.7.7. Capitals may be indicated. Contractions may be restricted
if the component letters are a mixture of upper case and lower
case.  

Line Sign Method
9.7.8. This method is only suitable where the print layout is
reasonably straightforward. Special care needs to be taken, using
this method, when easy access to line numbering is required.  

9.7.9. Poetry may be written continuously with the line sign
(see 5.6) placed at the end of each verse line. Each stanza
should begin in cell 3 of a new line. The line sign should occur
at the end of each stanza except the last. It should not appear
at the end of a poem or verse extract.  

9.7.10. When it ends a line of verse, a note reference should
precede the line sign with a space between. This combination may
begin a braille line. 

9.7.11. When a line of asterisks occurs within verse, the
previous braille line should end with a line sign. However, it is
often more convenient to represent an omission in verse by an
ellipsis spaced from line signs on either side.  

9.7.12. When the second part of a verse line is written on a
separate line in print to mark the beginning of a new paragraph,
no line sign should be brailled at the end of the first part, and
the second part should begin in cell 3 of a new line. 

9.7.13. When print shows that an extract begins in the middle
of a verse line, either by the use of an initial small letter or
by starting it in the middle of the print line, no indication of
this need be given in braille. 

9.7.14. Where, in print, verse is not set out line by line but
use is made of a vertical or oblique stroke, a short dash, or an
initial capital letter to indicate the beginnings of verse lines,
the line sign with normal spacing should be used in braille. No
new line need be taken in braille at the beginning of the verse
extract if print does not take a new line.  

9.7.15. In addition to indicating the ends of verse lines, the
line sign may be used to mark the ends of prose lines in  
epitaphs, inscriptions, facsimile title pages, etc. It is also
used in certain methods of setting out the scriptures.  

Prose and Verse
9.7.16. Where prose and verse alternate, blank lines and/or
indentation may be necessary to differentiate between them when  
the line-by-line or facsimile method is employed. 

9.7.17. Whatever method is used, the resumption of the main text
(prose or verse) after an extract or quotation should be in the
first or third cell of a new line as indicated in print.  


                      9.8. QUOTED PASSAGES

9.8.1. Quoted matter shown in print by change of type, change of
margin, or by the leaving of a blank line before and after, may
be handled in one of two ways. Method (a) is generally preferred.

    (a) The extract, prose or poetry, may be set out without
inserted quotation signs but should then be marked off from
surrounding text by a device such as indenting the margin, using
blank lines, or adding 12 centred commas. When the extract as a
whole is indented in braille, any paragraph within it
(including the first) should begin two cells deeper than the
indented margin.

    (b) The extract may be enclosed within the one-cell quotation
signs, regardless of whether there are inverted commas in print.

  In each case the extract, and the resumption of the normal text,
should begin in the first or third cell of a new braille line
according to whether or not a paragraph is intended in print. 

9.8.2. When quoted notices, newspaper headlines, etc., are
centred in braille, they should be enclosed within quotation 
marks, but generally they need not be italicised. 
 

                      9.9. WORD DIVISION

9.9.1. In general, braille should observe the same standards
in word division as are recommended for print. In particular
words should not be divided in the middle of a syllable. 

9.9.2. It should be noted that it is often not worth dividing
near the beginning of a word, especially after the first braille
character.  

9.9.3. In general words should not be divided in the middle of
a letter group which would otherwise be contracted. 

9.9.4. When a compound word which is normally hyphenated is
divided at the end of the line in print, braille should retain
the hyphen even in the middle of a line.
 


 
                          APPENDIX I 
                    SOME FOREIGN ALPHABETS 

  Further information on the following alphabets, as well as
on others not included here, can be obtained if required from the
Braille Authority of the United Kingdom.
                  
                          (A) GREEK
a alpha
b beta
g gamma 
d delta
e epsilon
z zeta 
WH eta
TH theta
i iota 
k kappa
l lambda
m mu 
n nu
x xi
o omicron 
p pi
r rho
s sigma 
t tau
u upsilon
f phi 
AND chi
y psi
w omega 

IN iota subscript (small print iota appearing under a letter;
    follows the letter in braille)  
h rough breathing (print single opening quote, appearing over a
    small letter or before a capital letter; follows rho but
    precedes all other letters or diphthongs in braille) 
' mark of elision (print single closing quote; either at the end
    of a word and followed by a space, or at the beginning of a
    word and preceded by a space) 
  All other accents or diacritics are generally ignored. 


                       (B) HEBREW

  Text using the hebrew alphabet is normally printed to be read 
from right to left. The characters should always be so
transcribed that they are read from left to right in braille.  
  In braille, all vowels follow the letters under or above which
they appear in print.  

                            Consonants
a alef
v vet
g gimmel
d dalet
h he
w vav
z zayin
x het
t tet
j yod
CH kaf
l lamed
m mem 
n nun
s sameh
ED ayin 
f fey
THE tsade
q qaf, kof
r resh
SH shin 
TH tav

                         Accented Letters
b bet
k kaf
p pe
WH sin

                  Vowels and Pronunciation Aids

c patah
: hataf-patah
ST tsere
e segol 
EN hataf-segol
i hiriq maleh
IN hirik haser
o holom maleh
OW holom haser
GH qamats
AR hataf-qamats
u qubbuts
ING shuruq
dot 3  sh'va

 
                         (C) OLD ENGLISH

a a
b b
c c
d d 
e e
f f 
g g
OF yogh
h h
i i 
l l
m m
n n 
o o
p p
r r 
s s
t t
ST thorn 
ING eth (crossed d)
u u
w w
THE wen
y y 
AND "and" sign
 
CH long a 
GH long e
SH long i 
TH long o
WH long u
WITH long y 
ED e with hook (ash)
ER o with hook
AR c with dot above
OU g with dot above 

  If a diphthong is to be marked long, both of its letters should
use long vowel signs.

  A dot which is not positioned as a normal full stop should be
represented by dot 3.  


                           (D) RUSSIAN

a ah
b beh
w veh
g geh
d deh 
e yeh
CH yo
j zheh
z zeh 
i ee
AND ee (short)
k kah 
l el
m em
n en 
o oh
p peh
r err 
s ess
t teh
u ooh 
f eff
h khah
c tseh 
q cheh
WH shah
x shchah 
OF hard sign
THE yery
WITH soft sign 
OW eh
OU yoo
ED yah 

 
                        (E) WELSH

a a
b b
c c 
CH ch
d d
THE dd 
e e
v f
f ff 
g g
ING ng
h h 
i i
j j
l l 
FOR ll
m m
n n 
o o
p p
GH ph 
r r
k rh
s s 
t t
TH th
u u 
w w
y y 

dot 4  circumflex 
dots 45  diaeresis
dot 5  acute 
  
  A list of contractions used in Welsh braille is available from
the Braille Authority of the United Kingdom.


                           APPENDIX II 
                 SIGNS USED IN SOME FOREIGN CODES 
  Further information on the following languages, as well as on
others not included here, can be obtained if required from the
Braille Authority of the United Kingdom.

                      
                           (A) FRENCH
AND c cedilla 
FOR e acute 
OF a grave 
THE e grave 
WITH u grave 
CH a circumflex 
GH e circumflex 
SH i circumflex 
TH o circumflex 
WH u circumflex 
ED e with diaeresis 
ER i with diaeresis 
OU u with diaeresis 
OW oe diphthong 
AR ae diphthong 


                            (B) GERMAN

THE sz
OU u umlaut 
OW o umlaut 
AR a umlaut 


                           (C) ITALIAN

  Circumflex accents are only occasionally needed in modern
works.  

OF a grave 
THE e grave 
WITH u grave 
CH a circumflex 
GH e circumflex 
SH i circumflex 
TH o circumflex 
WH u circumflex 
ST i grave 
ING o grave
 

                          (D) SPANISH

OF a acute 
THE e acute 
WITH u acute 
ER n with tilde 
OU u with diaeresis 
ST i acute
ING o acute 

 
                           APPENDIX III 
                      GUIDE TO CONTRACTING 

  No alteration should be made to print for the purpose of
conforming with the contractions authorised in the list below.
Where print uses permissible alternatives in spelling,
accentuation, hyphenation or spacing, these should be followed.
Help with many words not included in this list can bee obtained by
reference to the rules: see especially 8.8 (preference), 8.9
(bridging), 8.10 (English names), and 8.11 (foreign words and
names).

Abalone
aBB`e 
AbOUt (French)
ABOUTface
ABOVEmEN/TION/ED 
absIN/THE 
ACCORDINGly 
acetONE 
A/CHaean 
aCHievER 
acrEAge 
acrosses 
AdENey 
adHERE 
adhER/ED 
adhER/ENCE 
ad nauseam 
advANCEd 
aedile 
AegEAn 
Aeneas 
aERial 
A/ERoflot 
aERofoil 
A/ERtex 
aesTHEtic
afFORd 
aFF/RIGHT/ED 
aFORemEN/TION/ED 
aFORe/SAID 
aftEReFFects 
AFTERmaTH 
AFTERs 
agreEA/BLE 
ahimsa 
A/ING/ER
aIN't 
Airedale 
Aix-en- 
  ProvENCE 
Al CapONE 
  [dots 56 Al]
aleatory 
A/LESS/ANDro
al fINe [dots 56 al]
AllOWay 
almonER 
almshOUse 
Alpes 
  M/ARitimes 
altimetER 
Ampthill 
anaesTHEsia 
AND/EAn 
ANDreas 
anemone 
Annandale 
antEAtER 
antedate 
antenatal 
antENnae 
anteroom 
anthEAp 
anTHElion 
anthill 
Antigone 
antINomian 
AntINous 
antiTHEses 
antitype 
aPARTheid 
Appledore 
aquEDuct 
ARborEAl 
ARccosINe 
ARea 
AR/EAs 
AR/EAway
areligiOUs 
AR/EN't 
aRIGHT 
ARisEN 
AR/MENTois 
AR/OUND 
ARrOWhEAd 
asTHma 
A/THEns 
A/THErST/ONE 
atONE 
atonED 
azalEAs 
  
  
BacCHus 
BaedekER 
Bagration 
Bahadur 
BaINGe
bandog 
BanFF/SHire 
B/ARbARossa
B/ARgoed
bARoness 
bARonet 
BasedOW 
basTION 
baTHEd 
BaTHurST 
BattiSHill 
battleaxe
battledore 
BauER 
bayonet 
BEatitude 
B/EAtrice 
bEAutiFUL 
B/EAuvais 
BEbe 
beckonED 
BEdales 
BEdaub 
bEDdING 
BEdizEN 
B/ED/OU/IN 
beefEAtER 
BEelzebub
beeST 
BeethovEN 
BeevERs 
BEFOREhAND 
BE/FREIND 
BEfriENdED 
BEgonia 
BEgum 
Behan 
BEhemoTH
BEHINDhAND 
BEin' 
BE/ING 
BEla
BElial 
BElievER 
BElINda 
BelINGton 
BEliSHa 
BE/LITTLEd 
BElize 
BellERophon 
belligER/ENCE 
BelOFf 
Belorussia 
B/EN/ARes 
B/EN/EDetto
B/EN/EDick
bEN/EDicTION 
bENefit 
B/ENelux
bENevolENCE 
BEniGHtED 
bENign 
B/ENito 
B/ENoiST 
B/EN/THall 
Beowulf 
BEquEA/THEd 
BEratED 
BEreft 
B/ER/ENs 
bERet 
B/ERgholt 
B/ERia 
B/ER/ING/AR 
B/ER/THE 
bER/THEd 
BEsan`con 
Besant 
BEsom 
BEsonian 
be'ST
beSTial
BEta
BEtel 
BeTHEl 
BeTHEsda 
BetshangER 
bettER 
Betws-y- 
  coed 
  [dots 56 y]
BETWEEN/WHiles 
bevel 
bEVERage 
bezel 
BEzique 
bighEAd 
bINaural 
B/INGham
binodal 
bINomial 
binormal 
biofeEDback 
BirmINGham 
biscuity 
Blaenau FfeST/INiog
BlakENey 
BlakERage 
BleDDyn 
bLESS/`ED
blINdage 
blINdED 
BLINDfold 
blINdING 
blINdism 
BLINDly 
BlINdoc 
BLINDs 
BlOFeld 
blood-LETTER 
blossomED 
BlumEN/THal 
BocCH/ER/INi 
BoER 
bolONEy
Bo'ness 
Boone 
BordEAux 
Borealis 
Boreas 
borEDom 
Bosham 
BoTHE 
bottleneck 
B/OUGHTon 
B/OWatER 
BRAILLEr 
BRAILLEtte 
BRAILLEx 
braillING 
BriGHam 
BrighOUse 
broTHEr-IN-law 
BuDDha 
BuonaPARTe 
burEAu 
busiNESS 
  
  
Caedmon 
CaEN 
CaernARvon 
CairSTiona 
cajolERy 
CalINgaERt
callisTHEnics 
CamoENs 
CAN-CAN 
cANCEl 
cANCEr 
Cannongate
CAN't 
Cantonese 
captaINess
C/ARiBB/EAn
cARthorse 
cassOW/ARy 
CaSTiglione 
CaSTlerEA/GH 
cation 
caveat 
cENtime 
cENtimetre 
cER/EAl 
cERulEAn 
CHad
CHaeronea 
CHaFF/IN/CH 
CHalybEAte 
CH/ANCEl 
CHangEA/BLE 
CH/ARgEA/BLE 
CH/ARleroi 
CH/ARleSTon 
CH/ARlestOWn
CH`atEAu
CHaTHam 
CHemoTHErapy 
CHieftaINess 
CHiFF/CHaff 
CHildlike 
CHILD-LIKE 
CHilEAn 
CHimaera 
CH/INamEN 
CHisholm 
CHlordane 
CHockfull 
CH/OU En-lai 
CHromoSOME 
cicERone 
cINeaST
cINeradiograph
CirENceST/ER 
citizENess 
CitroEN 
clANDeST/INe 
ClAR/ENceux 
clARionet 
CleanTH 
ClemENcEAu 
Cleone 
cliff's 
ClivedEN 
CoBBleiGH 
cobBLEr 
CoblENz 
cock-a- 
  doodle-DO 
cofOUND/ER
CoGGeSHall 
Coghill 
coHERE 
cohER/ENt 
ColeraINe 
ColERidge 
colonel 
COMa 
comates 
COMb 
COMbe 
COM`ediENne 
COMic 
COMin' 
comINGle 
COM/ITY 
COMmaED 
COMmAND/ER-IN-CHief 
COMmENCE 
COMmENcED 
COMmoneST 
COMo 
COMponENt 
com'ST 
COMte 
COMus 
Cona 
coNAME 
Conan 
conATION 
conative 
CONCEIVEr 
CONcERtINaED 
conCH 
CON/CHology 
CONdONE 
CONdonED 
cONE 
conED 
cONEy 
C/ONG 
CONgEAlED 
CONgENial 
CONgER 
CONgresbury 
CONgruITY 
CONic 
conies 
CONifER 
CON/INGsby 
CONiSTon 
conk 
CONkER 
CONklIN 
CONman
connED 
CONnING 
conoidal 
CONor 
cons 
CONtradiST/INcTION 
CONtrick
CONundrum 
CONvERsazione 
CONybeARe 
CONze 
CorDAY
coronER 
coronet 
CoSHam
cotoneaST/ER 
cOUpon 
cOUrthOUse 
cOWhERd 
coWORK/ER 
crEAte 
creatIN/INe 
creATION 
cr`eme de 
  mEN/THE 
CriSToFORo 
CrosTHwaite 
CrOWhurST 
CunnINGham 
Cunnyngham 
  
  
daCHshund 
dacoity 
Daedalus 
daftER 
DaING/ERfield
dANCEd 
dARedevil 
daundER 
Dayan 
DAY-to-DAY 
DAYton 
dEAconess 
Deanna 
DECEIVEr 
DECLAREd 
decONGeST/ED 
dEDuct 
delIN/EAte 
delINeATION 
demoness
demONEtize 
DemosTHEnes 
denATIONalize 
denaturED 
denicotINizED
dENomINator 
dENotED 
dEN/OUeMENT 
dENude 
denumERaBLE 
dENunciATION 
dERacINate 
dERail 
dERange 
deregulate
dERelict 
dERide 
dERive 
dERogatory 
derOUtING 
deshabille 
d'E/STaING 
DestOU/CHes 
D/EVEReux 
DewhurST 
diaeresis 
diEResis 
diFFuSION 
dINGhy 
Dione 
disc 
DISco
DIScography 
DIScus 
DIS/EAse 
DIShabille 
diSHevel 
DIS/INgENuOUs 
disk
DISney 
diSPIRIT/ED 
DISraeli 
Diss 
DISsecTION 
DISsyllabic 
DIStaff 
DIStANCEd 
DIStiCH  
DIStil 
DIStrict 
disulphide 
disyllabic 
diTHErER 
doGG/ONE 
doghOUse 
Dolittle 
DonaGHadee 
donee 
Donegal 
Doolittle 
Doone 
dOU/BLEt
dOUGHTy 
drOUGHT 
DuerER 
dukEDom 
dumbbells 
DungeNESS 
Dupont 
DworkIN 
dynariBBon 
d'yOU 
  
  
ED 
EDay
EDict 
e'EN 
e'ER 
eFFacEA/BLE 
efFORt 
eFFulgENt 
egg-cup 
eGGhEAd 
eGG/TIMEr 
E/GHam 
EirEAnn 
eiSTeDDfod 
ElEAnor 
Eleatic 
EleazAR 
electroENcephalogram
`el`evATION 
emmEN/THalER 
ENamel 
ENcyclopaedia
ENcyclopEDia 
ENOUGH's
en rOUte 
En Saga 
ENsemBLE 
ENtrANCEd 
ENuclEAte 
ENumER/ATION 
ENunciATION 
epineural 
equidiSTant 
equINox 
ER 
ERadicate 
ERase 
ERroneOUs 
EsARhaDDon 
esPARTo 
EsTHEr 
EsTHwaite 
eTHErEAl 
EuropEAn 
EuryanTHE 
EVER/SH/ED 
evERt 
EVERt (name)
exeat 
exonERate 
expERiENcED 
extENsometER 
extramENtal 
  
  
fa`ERy
faERy 
fAR/TH/INGale 
fathEAd 
FATHER-IN-law 
FauntlERoy 
fEAlty 
FelTHam 
fENcED 
FeuERmann 
fEVERiSH 
fIN/ANCEd 
fiNESSe 
F/INiST/ERre 
firedrake 
Flatholm 
flEAriDD/EN 
FontaINeblEAu 
foothills 
FORedoomED 
FOReNAMEd 
FORenoon 
FORerunnER 
FOReseEA/BLE 
FoTHErINGhay 
FrANCEsca 
FrED/ERikshavn 
freEDom 
FroMENT/IN 
frOW/ARd 
fruity 
fUNDER
funER/EAl 
furbelOW 
  
  
gadABOUT
GalaHAD 
galINGale 
GallOWay 
G/ANDhi
gARderobe 
gasometER 
GateshEAd 
gaTHErER 
geanticlINe 
gENealogy 
GeOFfrey 
G/ER/MANY
G/ERontion
Gibeah 
Gilead 
gINGham 
G/INGold 
Giorgione 
giveaway 
glasshOUse
goathERd
goBLEt
goDDamn
goddauGHtER
GoerING 
GoeTHE 
gonER 
GOODe 
Goodge 
GOODwill 
GOOD-WILL 
GOODy 
GordonstOUn 
goshawk 
GoTHEnburg 
GotthARd 
govERness 
graftER 
GraING/ER
grANDad 
grANDdad 
GranTHam 
grasshoppER 
gravediGG/ER 
GravENey 
GREATorex 
GreSHolm 
Grimsholm 
Gruenfeld 
gruFFly 
guIN/EAs 
GuINevERe 
GunTHEr 
Gwynedd 
  
  
Hadad 
hadal 
HaDD/INGton 
haDDock 
hade 
Hades 
Hadid 
hadji 
HADley 
HadOW 
Hadrian 
HaINan 
HamBLEdon 
hAND/SOMEr 
Hanseatic 
HapGOOD 
H/AR/LESSdyke
H/ARtshorn
havENa 
HAVE-nots 
havEN't 
HavighurST 
hEAddress 
heARtsEAse 
hEA/THEn 
hEDgerOW 
H/EN/EAge 
hENnaED 
H/EN/NESSey 
HephaeSTion 
HERE/ABOUTs 
HERE/AFTER 
hER/ED/ITY 
hER/EDofamilial
H/EReFORd 
HERE/IN/AFTER 
HERE/INbeFORe 
hEResy 
hERetic 
H/ERewARd 
HERE/WITH 
H/ERmione 
H/EVER 
hideaway 
hiGGlEDy- 
  piGGlEDy 
Hildesheim 
Himalayas 
hobBLEdehoy 
H/OFfmann 
H/OFmannsTHal 
hogshEAd
hoity-toity 
HolIN/SH/ED 
HollOWay 
HollOWood 
HolOF/ERnes 
HoneGG/ER 
hONE/ST 
hONEy 
hornblENde 
HorOWitz 
horseradiSH 
hothOUse 
H/OUGHTon 
hOUseagENt
hOUsedress 
HuguENot 
Hwangho 
hyaena 
hydrangEAs 
hydronephrosis
hypoTHEses 
  
  
Ibleam 
icerINk 
idEAlITY 
ideALLY 
idEAs 
imagERy 
imPARTial 
impERmEA/BLE 
impoSThume 
imprisonED 
INasMUCH
IN-BETWEEN 
INcONGruITY 
INconvENiENcED 
INdiaruBB/ER 
INdiST/INct 
INdonesia 
I/NESSa 
INessENtial 
INfluENcEA/BLE 
INfluENcED 
INfrarED 
INfula 
INgENue
IN/GHam
IN/GHelbreCHt 
INgledew 
INglenook 
IN/HERE 
INhER/ENt
IN-laws 
INsofAR 
INsoMUCH 
IN't 
INtonED 
INvER/NESS 
IolanTHE 
Ionesco 
I/OWa 
isINGlass 
isomER 
isometric 
isoneph 
isTHmus 
IT'll 
IvINGhoe 
  
  
JamestOWn 
J/EAn (French) 
jeHAD 
Judaean 
juGGlERy 
  
  
kettledrum 
kilowatt 
K/ING/STon 
K/INGstOWn 
K/INgussie 
KirkcudbRIGHT 
K/NESSet 
kniGHthood 
knockABOUT
knockOUt 
knock-OUT 
KNOWlEDgEA/BLE 
KNOWles 
knuckleduST/ER 
KoenigsbERg 
krone 
kronER 
K/UNDERa
  

lacrosse 
LaERtes 
LaING 
lANCEd 
lANCEt 
L/AND/OWska 
Langhaire 
LanGHam 
LanGHolm 
Languedoc 
lanTHorn 
L/AR/OUsse 
laundER 
laurEAte 
Leah 
LeAND/ER 
lEArig 
LeGHorn 
legionella 
L/EN/INgrad 
L/ENoir 
LeOFric 
LeopARdstOWn 
L/ERoy 
LeTHE 
LETTER/ING 
LETTERpress 
lEVER 
lEVERet 
Liebestod 
liGHthOUse 
likEA/BLE 
liliaceae 
LilleSHall 
limbLESS 
limeade 
lIN/EAge 
lIN/EA/MENTs 
L/INgaARd
Lionel 
lioness 
liST/EN-IN 
LITTLEjohn 
LITTLEovER 
LITTLEr 
LivIN/GOOD 
Llandaff 
lonER 
lONGhAND 
LonGHi 
LORDosis 
L/OUGHTon
L/OW/EN/THal 
LucknOW 
Lufthansa 
LyoNESSe 
LyrNESSus 
  
  
MaCCabees 
MacC/AR/THy
MacH/ARdie 
maenad 
mahARajah 
MahONEy 
MaINgaARd 
malEDicTION 
MaleshERbes 
mallEA/BLE 
MalONE 
MalONEy
managEA/BLE 
MancettER 
mANDrake 
mangonel
Mansholt 
Manyata 
Manyon 
mARabOUt 
mAR/CHioness 
mARionette 
M/AR/THE 
maSThEAd 
MatTHEw 
maundER 
Mbabone 
McCann 
McCommack 
McConnell 
McEA/CHan 
McHuGH 
McKeevER 
McN/ALLY 
meAND/ER/ING 
mEAthook 
meatus 
mEDdle 
M/EDitERranEAn 
Meean 
MeleagER 
M/ENtone 
mER/INGue 
M/ERioneTH 
M/ER/STham 
MessiaEN 
microfilm 
microwave 
midDAY 
milEAge 
mINeSTrone 
M/INneapolis 
misally 
misconceivED 
miscrEAnt 
mishap 
misheAR 
MissolonGHi 
miSTake 
miSTakEA/BLE 
mistERmED 
misTIMEd 
mistranslATION 
mistruST 
MoERan 
Moericke 
Monet
mONEtARy 
mONEy 
mONGoose 
monoWHeel 
MontENegro 
MontERey 
MontevERdi 
MonTHErlant 
Montreal 
Moone 
Mooney 
moongod
more'n 
MortimER 
moTH/EAtEN 
mOU/THEd 
movEA/BLE 
MUCH HADham 
multimEDia 
multinATIONal 
MunTHE 
MUSTa 
muSTaCHe 
MuSTafa 
muSTang 
muST/ARd 
muST/ER 
MUSTiNESS 
MUSTs 
MUSTy 
MycaLESSus 
MycENaean 
Mymmshall 
  
  
NAMEd 
nausEAte 
NavAR/ONE 
Neaera 
NeAND/ER/THal 
Neapolitan 
NeAR/CHus 
neurasTHEnia 
NevERs 
nEVER/THE/LESS 
Newham 
niGHtINGale 
noBBut 
noBLEsse 
noiSOME 
nonENtITY 
nONEs 
N/ONE/SUCH 
nonet
nongovERnMENTal
norTH/ABOUT
norTH/EA/ST 
NorTH/EDge 
norTHErn 
NorTHesk
nosebleED 
noticEA/BLE 
NottINGham 
noway 
nowise 
NuernbERg 
nuthatCH 
  
  
oaSThOUse 
obeah 
ocEAnic 
OcEAnus 
O'Connor 
oDD/NESS 
oedema 
Oedipus 
Oenone 
OFfER 
OkEAnos 
oleagIN/OUs 
oleAND/ER 
OnegIN 
onER/OUs 
opponENt 
orangeade 
orangERy 
oread 
orgeat 
OrlEAns 
ornaMENT 
OrtOFon 
OsENey 
OsGOOD 
OUrself 
OUthOUse 
ovER/EAt 
ovERfull 
ovER/MUCH 
OW! 
  
  
padrone 
paean 
paediatric 
pagEAnt 
paINstakING 
palINgENesis 
pALLY 
panacEAs 
Pancev 
pancreas 
pANDemic 
pAND/OWdy 
pARarhyme 
PARTake 
PART/ERre 
P/AR/THEnon 
P/AR/THian 
PARTial 
passe-pARtOUt 
pasTIME 
patroness 
pEAcock 
P/EAkeshole 
pEAn 
pEAnuts 
PeeBLEsSHire 
pENsione 
pENthOUse 
peoples 
PEOPLE's 
Peppone 
pERhapses 
pERinatal 
pER/INeum 
pERitoneum 
P/ERsephone 
pERsevERe 
PesTH 
petronel 
P/EVERil 
Phaedrus 
PhERes
PhINeas 
phoenix 
phonED 
phoneme
phonetic 
phONEy 
phreatic 
pianoFORte 
picofARad 
piediSH 
pINeapple 
pioneER 
pitCHblENde 
pithEAd 
pityARd 
platEAu 
PoINgiant 
poleaxe 
popEDom 
PopER/INGhe 
porthole 
PortofINo 
Port Said 
poSThumOUs 
poSTponED 
pothERb 
potSH/ERd 
PraED
PraeneSTe 
prANCEd 
preamBLE 
preARrange 
pRECEIVEr
preconceivED 
predecEAsED 
prEDecessor 
predeST/IN/ED 
predetERmINe 
prEDicate 
prEDict 
prEDilecTION 
predispose 
predomINate 
prenatal 
prePAID 
prerelEAse 
prerequisite
prERogative 
priedieu 
prieSThood 
prINcEDom 
prisonER 
profane
profERt
prOFesSION 
prOFfER 
prOFile 
prOF/OUND 
prOFuSION 
PromeTHEan
prounion 
psyCH/EDelic 
psyCHoneurotic
puFFball 
purBLIND 
pyonephrosis 
pyTHoness 
  
  
QueENstOWn 
quINquEReme 
  
  
raBBity 
raftER 
ransomED 
rascALLY 
ratEA/BLE 
rawhide 
reabsorb 
react 
readmit 
reaFFirm 
R/EAgan 
reagENt 
realgAR 
rEAlITY 
reALLY 
Real Madrid 
rEAltor 
rEAlty 
reappeAR 
reassure 
reawake 
R/EAy 
RECEIVEd 
r`eCHauFF`e 
recrEAnt 
recreATION 
rEDacTION 
rEDeem 
rED/INGote 
redirect 
rediSTribuTION 
redOU/BLEd 
rED/OUbt 
rEDress 
rEDuce 
rEDundant 
reduplicate 
refulgENt 
REJOICEd 
relievER 
rENaissANCE 
reNAMEd 
rENege 
rENew 
rEN/OWn 
renumbER 
rENunciATION 
rePAID 
rePARTee 
rER/EDos 
rerOUtED 
rerun 
retrievER 
revERbER/ATION 
revERe 
rEVER/ENcED 
rEVERie 
revERify 
revERs 
revERse 
RhadamanTHus 
RhonDDa 
riBB/AND 
riboflavIN 
RiCHthOF/EN 
riFFraff 
RIGHT/ABOUT 
RoedEAn 
RoentgEN 
romANCEr 
roMANY 
roneo 
rosEAte 
RosEN/THal 
RosmERsholm 
RoSThERne 
RoTHEnSTeIN 
rOUND/ABOUT 
rOU/ST/ABOUT 
runABOUT 
  
  
sacCH/AR/INe 
SaCH/EVERell 
safflOW/ER
SaINt-JUST 
salEA/BLE 
salmonella 
SancERre 
S/ANDay 
S/AND/INiSTa
SaundERs 
savagERy 
S/CHiedam 
S/CHoenbERg 
S/CH/OField 
scrOFulOUs 
sEAboARd 
S/EAmus 
S/EAn 
sEAquARium 
Seattle 
SecUNDERabad 
SeINglINd 
sENtENcED 
sENtiMENTal 
sERgEAnt 
sERonegative
sERvicEA/BLE 
sEVERal 
sevERe 
S/EVER/INo 
sevER/ITY 
S/EVERn 
SevERus 
SHadOW 
SHakedOWn 
SHanghai 
SH/EA/THEd 
SHeFField 
SHoreditCH 
SHorthAND 
SH/OUldER 
sidER/EAl 
SiERra LeONE 
silENcEA/BLE 
silENcER 
SimONE (French)
Simone (It.)
S/INGh 
sizEA/BLE 
slaghEAp 
S/LESSor 
smiTHEreENs 
SnOWhill 
SO-AND-SO 
somERsault 
SOME/SUCH 
S/ONGgram 
SonGHai 
sooneST
Soothill 
SO-SO 
sOU/TH/EA/ST
S/OU/TH/ENd
sOU/THErn 
S/OU/THesk
S/OU/THEy 
S/OWeto 
spARrOWhawk 
S/PARTa
SpEAiGHt 
spEAkEAsy 
SpENcER 
sphERe 
spikenARd 
SpOF/FOR/TH 
sprEAdEAglED 
squALLY 
STaFFroom 
STateroom 
STaubbaCH 
STeatite 
ST/ERadian 
STevEDore 
sTHEnic 
STiFF/NESS 
STillNESS 
STirABOUT
STonED 
SToreroom 
STrada Reale 
STranraER 
STraTHeARn 
STrEA/THam 
STrENgTHEn 
STrONGhold 
'STruTH 
STyrofoam 
subbaseMENT 
sublessee 
sublet 
subpoenaED 
SuCHet 
SUCHlike 
sultaness
sunblEA/CH
SurINamese 
sweetheARt 
sWITH/ER 
sword 
synTHEses 
  
  
tablEAu 
taBLEt 
taFFrail 
TamMANY 
tARsometatARsal 
tEAroom 
tEAs 
tEA/TIME 
teatro 
telephonED 
T/EN/NESSee 
THaDDaeus
THEale 
THEatre 
TH/ENCE 
THEodotion 
THErapy 
THERE/ABOUTS 
THERE/AFTER 
THEREfrom 
THEresa 
THErmoFORm 
THErmoTHErapy 
THEses 
THEseus 
THievERy 
TH/ING-IN-ITSELF 
THiSTledOWn 
THoseby 
THreSHold 
TIMEd 
TIMEr 
TIMEx 
timoneER
titaness 
T/ITYrus 
to-DO 
toenail 
tooTHEd 
toreador 
Tothill 
T/OUrcoING 
tOW/ARds 
T/OWnshENd 
tracEA/BLE 
traCHeae 
transceivER 
tranSHip 
transhumANCE 
TrEN/THam 
trINomial 
trOUssEAu 
trypanoSOME 
Ts'ong 
tubERose 
Tuonela 
turnABOUT
TweEDleDee
twofold 
tWOULD 

  
unamENaBLE 
unamENdED 
unamERican 
unbER/EAvED
unblEA/CH/ED 
unblemiSH/ED 
unbLESS/ED 
unbleST 
unconceivED 
uncONG/EAlED 
uncONG/ENial 
unDECEIVEd 
unDECLAREd 
undERivED 
UNDERlessee 
undERogatory 
UNDER/PAID
undisheARtEN/ED 
undiST/INGuiSH/ED 
uneAR/THEd 
unEAsy 
unEAtaBLE 
unessayED 
unfulfillED 
UnilEVER 
uninucleAR 
unLESS 
unlessonED 
unLETTER/ED 
unmEN/TION/ED 
unNECESSARY
unPAID
unSAID
untOW/ARd 
usEA/BLE 
uSH/ER/ED
  
vaINgloriOUs 
valEDicTION 
V/ANDam 
V/AND/ERbilt 
V/ANDyke 
VaNESSa 
VeblEN 
VeevERs 
vENgeANCE 
vERitypER 
V/ERonese 
V/ERwoERd
ViAReGGio 
viceregal 
viceroy 
Vietnamese 
ViljoEN 
villaINess 
Villeneuve 
vINGt-et-un
Volpone 
V'urtheim
  
  
waftER 
waGGonette 
Wahroonga 
walkABOUT
WalTHEr 
wARthog 
wasn't 
WavENey 
wEA/THErED 
wEDdED 
weevER 
WeINgARtnER 
well-to-DO 
WemBLEy 
W/ENCEslas 
wER/ENa 
wER/EN't 
WeST/INGhOUse 
WH/ARfedale 
WHERE/ABOUTs
WHEREas 
WH/ERe'ER 
WH/ER/EVER 
WHiCH/EVER 
WHICH'll 
WHithorn 
WHorEDom 
wideawake 
WillaERt
WILL-o'-THE-wisp 
WimBLEdon 
W/INGate 
wiseacre 
WiSH/ARt 
WITHam 
WITHe 
WITH/ER 
woFUL 
WORD/EN 
WORDsworTH 
WORKsop 
WorsTHorne
WOULD-be 
WranGHam
WrINGham
W/UNDERhorn
  
  
YaOUnd`e 
yEAh 
Y/EAndel 
YOU'd 
yOU'm 
Y/OUrcEN/AR 
YOU's 
  
  
ziTHEr 
zonED 
zooFUL 





                              INDEX

abbreviation point, 2.3, 5.4.15, 5.5.8, 6.6.2, 6.7.4,
      7.1.1-7, 7.3.2, 7.3.6, 7.5.1, 7.5.4, 8.2.6
abbreviations
  braille: see contractions--shortforms
  print, 4.6.2-3, 5.4.14-15, 5.4.18-19, 6.1.8, 7.1, 7.3.1-4, 7.3.6,
      8.4.16, 9.6.1
  unit: see unit abbreviations
accented letters, 5.1, 6.6.2, 6.7.4, Appendix II
accent sign, 2.4, 4, 5.1.1-3, 5.1.6, 6.6.2, 6.7.4, 7.4.3
alphabets, non-Roman, 5.7, 7.5.10, Appendix I
ampersand, 2.6, 7.2.1
apostrophe, 2.3, 4, 4.1, 5.1.7, 5.4.12, 5.4.13, 5.6.2, 6.1.2,
      7.4.4, 8.2.3, 8.3.2, 8.4.9, 8.4.15, 8.4.24, 8.6.2
arrows, 2.6, 7.2.2
asterisk, 2.6, 4.1.4, 7.2.3-7, 9.4.2, 9.7.11
at, commercial sign for, 2.6, 7.2.8

brackets, 2.3, 4.2, 4.3.4, 4.6.4, 5.4.4 (c), 5.5.6, 6.1.3, 6.1.7,
      9.6.2, 9.6.7
break in text, 7.2.6

caesura, 2.6, 7.4.2
capital letters, 4.4.2, 5.1.3, 5.2, 7.1.6, 7.5.3, 9.7.7, 9.7.14
capital sign, 2.4, 4, 5.2, 5.4.4 (b), 7.3.7, 7.5.3, 8.2.9
colloquial forms, 8.2.3
comma, numerical, 2.5, 6.5.1-2
composition signs, 2.4, 4, 5
compound words, 4.5.1-2, 5.2.3, 5.4.8, 5.4.10
contents page, 9.2.1
contractions, by type
  composite groupsigns, 3.5, 8.6
  composite wordsigns, 3.4, 8.5
    dot 5 contractions, 8.5.3-13
  lower, 3.3, 8.4
    BE, CON, DIS, COM, 8.4.14-19
    BE, WERE, HIS, WAS, 8.4.12-13
    EA, 8.4.25-27
    EA and double letters, 8.4.23-24
    ENOUGH, EN, IN, 8.4.20-22
    TO, INTO, BY, 8.4.4-11
  shortforms, 3.6, 8.7, 8.12.2
  simple upper groupsigns, 3.2, 8.3
    BLE and ING, 8.3.5-7
  simple upper wordsigns, 3.1, 8.2
    sequencing, 8.2.7-9
contractions, general, 3, 7.1.3, 8
  bridging, 8.9
  choice of, 8.5.8, 8.8, 8.13.1, 8.13.5, 8.14.2-3
  non-use of, 5.1.5, 5.5.4, 7.1.6, 8.3.3, 8.11.2-3, 8.12, 8.13.1,
      8.13.3, 9.7.7
  sequencing, 8.2.7-9, 8.4.4-7, 8.4.10
correspondence, 9.3
crosses, 2.6, 7.2.9-11

dagger, 2.6, 7.2.3-4, 9.4.2
dash, 2.3, 4.3, 5.6.3, 6.1.4, 6.4.3, 8.2.6, 8.4.19, 9.1.7
dates, 6.1.2-5,
death, symbol denoting, 2.6, 7.2.11
diphthongs, 8.9.7-9
ditto sign, 2.6, 7.2.12
dot locator, 2.4, 5.3
dots, print, 4.1.4, 4.4.1-2, 7.2.6
dust jacket, 9.2.2

elided vowels, 4.1.3, 5.1.7
ellipsis, 2.3, 4.4, 5.6.4, 7.2.7, 9.7.11
English, early, 8.12
English names, 8.10
exclamation mark, 2.3, 4.2.5

facsimile hyphen, 2.4, 9.7.6
facsimile representation, 7.1.9-10, 9.7.4-7, 9.7.15
female sign, 2.6, 7.2.14
feminine endings, 8.6.5
foot (metrical), 2.6, 7.4.2
footnotes, 7.2.4, 9.4
foreign
  alphabets, 5.7, 7.5.10, Appendix I
  names, 8.11
  ordinal numbers, 6.6.2, 6.7.4
  words, 8.11
  (see also accents)
full stop, 2.3, 4.4.2, 8.2.6, 9.5.2, 9.6.4
  non-use of, 6.1.5, 6.1.8, 6.7.3, 7.3.6
  (see also abbreviation point)

guide to contracting, alphabetical, Appendix III

half lines (verse), 7.4.2
hash, 2.6, 7.2.13
headings, 9.1.6
hyphen, 2.3, 4.5, 5.5.3, 8.13.1, 8.13.3-4, 8.14.1
  influence of, 5.5.5, 6.1.3, 6.1.9, 6.3.3, 6.4.3
  insertion of, 4.6.3-4
  omission of, 6.1.8, 6.4.5, 7.1.9, 9.1.7
  with composition signs, 5.2.3, 5.4.8-11, 5.4.16, 5.5.5, 8.14.4
  with contractions, 8.2.4, 8.2.7, 8.3.5, 8.4.3, 8.4.9, 8.4.14-15,
      8.4.19, 8.4.24, 8.6.3, 8.7.4, 8.13.1, 8.13.3, 8.14.2
  with numbers, 5.4.11, 6.1.3-5, 6.1.7-9, 6.3.3, 6.4.3, 6.4.5
  with punctuation signs, 4.6.3-4, 7.1.5
initials, personal, 7.1.5
interrupted sentences, 4.3.3
ISBN number, 9.2.3
italics, 2.4, 4.3.8, 4.4.3, 5.4, 8.2.8, 8.4.7, 8.4.12, 8.14.4-5,
      9.6.1-2

layout, 9
letter sign, 2.4, 4.6.1, 5.1.5, 5.5, 5.7.2, 6.1.5, 6.1.8, 6.7.1-3,
      7.1.1-2, 7.1.4-7, 7.1.9, 7.1.11, 7.3.2-3, 7.5.4, 8.14.4, 9.5.2
line sign, 2.4, 5.6, 9.7.8-15
lisped words, 8.13.5
lists of items, 9.1.7
long syllables (scansion), 7.4.1, 7.4.3, 7.4.5

male sign, 2.6, 7.2.14
mathematical signs, 2.5, 6.5, 8.4.10

names, 8.10, 8.11
non-Roman scripts, 5.7, 7.5.10, Appendix I
notes, 7.2.3-4, 9.4
numbers, 2.2, 4.2.4, 6
  cardinal, 6.1, 6.5.1-2
  compound, 5.4.11, 6.1.3-5, 6.1.9, 6.3.3, 6.4.3, 6.7.2
  contracted, 6.2
  decimals, 6.3
  fractions, 6.4, 6.5.4
  grouped with letters, 6.1.8
  ordinal, 6.6, 6.7.4, 8.3.4
  Roman, 6.7, 7.3.7
numeral sign, 2.4, 4.6.1, 6.1.1, 6.1.3, 6.1.5-9

oblique stroke, 2.3, 4.6, 6.1.8, 7.1.9, 7.5.8, 7.5.14
omitted digits, 6.1.2, 6.1.5
  letters, 4.1.4, 4.3.6
  words, 4.3.7, 4.4.1, 7.2.7
outer cover, 9.2.4-5

page information line, 9.1.4
paragraphs, 4.2.1, 5.4.7, 9.4.4, 9.4.6-7, 9.5, 9.6.5-6, 9.7.2-3
plays, 9.6
poetry, 9.6.4-6, 9.7
post codes, 7.1.5
powers, 6.5.5, 7.5.4, 7.5.8-9
prefixes, 8.4.18, 8.9.1-3
print page indicator, 2.4, 9.1.5
print symbol indicator, 2.4
print symbols, 2.6, 7.2, 9.1.7
punctuation signs, 2.3, 4

question mark, 2.3, 4.2.5
quotation marks, 2.3, 4.3.9, 4.7, 5.4.3, 5.4.4 (a), 5.5.7, 8.4.7,
      8.4.9, 9.8.1 (b), 9.8.2
quoted passages, 4.7, 5.4.3, 9.8

references, 7.3 (see also notes)
reference signs, braille, 2.6, 7.3.8

scansion, 7.4
separation sign, mathematical, 2.5, 6.4.3, 6.5.3-4, 7.5.9
short syllables (scansion), 7.4.1, 7.4.3, 7.4.5
slurred words, 8.13.4-5
special braille signs, 9.1.8
spelt-out words, 5.5.3
stammered words, 8.13.1-4
stanzas, 9.7.2, 9.7.4, 9.7.9
Stock Exchange quotations, 6.4.5
stress, 5.1.2, 7.4.1, 7.4.3-5
subscripts, 2.5, 6.5.5
suffixes, 4.5.3, 8.4.27, 8.9.4
superscripts, 2.5, 6.5.5, 7.1.11, 7.5.8-9
symbols, print, 2.6, 7.2, 7.3.5, 7.5.1, 9.1.7

telephone numbers, 6.1.7-8
terminology, 1
time, expressions of, 6.1.6, 6.1.9, 7.5.1-2, 7.5.9
type, change of, 5.4.4-5, 9.8.1

unit abbreviations, 6.1.6, 7.5
  capital letters, 7.5.3
  combined, 7.5.8
  contracting, 7.5.12
  million, billion, 7.5.6
  spacing, 7.5.2
  use of letter sign, 7.5.4

vertical stroke, 9.7.14

word division, 4.6.3, 9.9
word endings, 4.5.3, 8.14

