

              british braille

             a restatement of
            standard english braille

         compiled and authorised by the
      braille authority of the united kingdom



             ::::::::::::
             in one volume
             ::::::::::::




         isbn 0901797901

         produced and published by
      royal national institute for the blind
     bakewell road, orton southgate
       peterborough, cambridgeshire
             pe2 6xu
             ::::::::::::



                contents
section page
    note ------------------------ 6
1. terminology ------------------- 7
2. characters and signs ----------------- 10
  21. letters of the alphabet --------- 10
  22. numbers ------------------ 10
  23. punctuation signs ---------- 11
  24. composition signs ----------- 12
  25. mathematical signs -------- 13
  26. print symbols and braille
    reference signs ---------------- 14
3. list of contractions -------------- 16
  31. simple upper wordsigns ----- 16
  32. simple upper groupsigns --- 16
  33. lower contractions ------------ 17
  34. composite wordsigns --------- 18
  35. composite groupsigns ------- 19
  36. shortforms ----------------- 20
4. use of punctuation signs -------- 23
  41. apostrophe --------------- 24
  42. brackets ---------------- 25
  43. dashes ------------------- 27
  44. ellipsis ---------------- 28
  45. hyphen ------------------- 29
  46. oblique stroke ----------- 30
                contents
section page
  47. quotation marks ------------- 31
5. use of composition signs --------- 33
  51. accents ------------------- 33
  52. capitals ---------------- 34
  53. dot locator ------------- 36
  54. italics ----------------- 36
  55. letter sign ----------------- 41
  56. line sign ---------------- 43
  57. non-roman scripts ------- 44
6. mathematics ------------------- 45
  61. cardinal numbers ----------- 45
  62. contracted numbers ---------- 48
  63. decimals ---------------- 49
  64. fractions ----------------- 50
  65. mathematical signs -------- 51
  66. ordinal numbers ----------- 54
  67. roman numerals ----------- 54
7. abbreviations and symbols --------- 56
  71. print abbreviations ---------- 56
  72. print symbols ------------ 59
  73. references ----------------- 63
  74. scansion and stress ---------- 67
  75. unit abbreviations ---------- 68
8. use of contrctions --------------- 74
  81. general ------------------- 74
  82. simple upper wordsigns ----- 74
                contents
section page
  83. simple upper groupsigns --- 77
  84. lower contractions ------------ 79
  85. composite wordsigns --------- 87
  86. composite groupsigns ------- 90
  87. shortforms ----------------- 92
  88. preference ----------------- 94
  89. bridging ------------------ 95
  810. english names -------------- 98
  811. foreign words and names -------- 99
  812. early english ------------- 100
  813. stammered, lisped and slurred
    words ------------------------- 101
  814. word endings ---------------- 102
9. layout and book work ------------- 104
  91. general ------------------- 104
  92. book work ----------------- 107
  93. correspondence ------------ 108
  94. notes ------------------- 109
  95. paragraphs --------------- 111
  96. plays ------------------- 112
  97. poetry ------------------ 114
  98. quoted passages ---------- 117
  99. word division --------------- 118
              appendices
i. some foreign alphabets ---------- 120
ii. signs used in some foreign codes
                contents
section page
iii. guide to contracting ------------ 130
    index ------------------------ 150
             ::::::::::::

























                 note
  the braille authority of the united kingdom, which has
issued this book, is the standard-setting body for
braille in this country.
  in the event of any divergence between the print
edition and the braille edition of this work, the latter should be
regarded as the definitive text.
  the object of this book is to provide for
transcribers, copyists and proofreaders of braille
a standard interpretation of the usages of inkprint,
and for readers, teachers and students of braille a guide
to agreed practice. however, no attempt has
been made to legislate comprehensively for the
writing of braille which is not derived from a print
original, or which is for private use only. in
such cases writers will not infrequently find
themselves faced with a choice of acceptable conventions
to follow; but within a single document they should try
to be consistent in the way they exercise such
choices. this book should be regarded as a work of
reference, and not as a teaching manual.
             ::::::::::::






              british braille
             a restatement of
            standard english braille
             ::::::::::::
            1. terminology
  dots are numbered within the braille cell as
follows: top left, 1; middle left, 2;
bottom left, 3; top right, 4; middle right,
5; bottom right, 6.

abbreviation: shortened representation of word or
    words in print.
cell: 6-dot matrix which is the basis of
    braille.
character: any of the 63 combinations of dots that can occupy
    a braille cell.
composite: consisting of more than 1 character.
composition sign: braille sign which has no direct
    print equivalent.
contraction: braille sign which represents a word or
    a group of letters.
grade 1 braille: grade of braille which includes
    all the signs given in section 2 and the
    rules relating to them. braille contractions are
    not used.
grade 2 braille: grade of braille which includes
            1. terminology
    all the signs given in sections 2 and 3
    and the rules relating to them. braille contractions
    are used.
groupsign: contraction which represents a group of
    letters.
initial: at the beginning of a word.
lefthand: lacking dots 4, 5 and 6.
lower: lacking dots 1 and 4.
medial: neither at the beginning nor at the end of a
    word.
punctuation sign: braille sign which represents a
    print punctuation mark.
righthand: lacking dots 1, 2 and 3.
sequence: 2 or more words written without an
    intervening space.
shortform: composite contraction representing a word
    and not consisting of a righthand character followed by one
    upper character.
sign: 1 or more characters with indivisible
    significance.
simple: consisting of 1 character.
space: cell containing no embossed dots.
string: series of unspaced characters.
symbol: print sign which is not a letter, number,
    accent or punctuation mark.
terminal: at the end of a word.
upper: including dot 1 and/or dot 4.
            1. terminology
wordsign: contraction which represents a complete
    word.
             ::::::::::::


























           2. characters and signs
  the dot locator (see 24) precedes characters
or signs to assist in their identification.
  where a string of letters is required
to demonstrate the application of a sign, xxx is
used.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
        21. letters of the alphabet
      for a forf fork forp foru
      forb forg forl forq forv
      forc forh form forr forw
      ford fori forn fors forx
      fore forj foro fort fory
                              forz
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
             22. numbers
        for1 one for6 six
        for2 two for7 seven
        for3 three for8 eight
        forbled four for9 nine
        for5 five for0 zero
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,




         23. punctuation signs
         23. punctuation signs
for, comma
for; semicolon
for: colon
for. full stop or abbreviation point
for! exclamation mark
forggxxx) open and close round brackets
for? question mark
for8xxx" open and close double inverted commas
forst oblique stroke
for' apostrophe
for... ellipsis
for- hyphen
for-- short dash
for---- long dash
for@ggxxx@) open and close phonemic brackets
for^ggxxx^) open and close phonetic brackets
forggxxx) open and close angle brackets
for.ggxxx.) open and close brace brackets
for[xxx] open and close square brackets
for"xxx" open and close single inverted commas
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,





         24. composition signs
         24. composition signs
forfor dot locator
for, non-roman letter sign
forar line sign
forble numeral sign
for@ accent sign
for@ print symbol indicator
for. facsimile hyphen
for.: print page indicator
for. italic sign
for.. double italic sign
for letter sign
for double letter sign
for capital sign
for double capital sign
for triple capital sign
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,










        25. mathematical signs
        25. mathematical signs
forch subscript
for, decimal point
for: is to (ratio)
foring superscript
for' numerical comma
for. divided by
for! plus
for) equals
for? multiplied by
for- minus
for separation sign
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,














          26. print symbols
       26. print symbols and braille
             reference signs
             print symbols
forat commercial "at"
ford. denoting death
forf. female sign
forl pound sign
form. male sign
foroow double dagger
forpar paragraph sign
fors' section sign
forowo dagger
forow: left arrow
forowcco double-headed arrow
forcco right arrow
forccp per cent
forccth per thousand
for. dollar sign
for* asterisk
for" degrees sign
for- end of metrical foot
for-- caesura
for& ampersand
forinch minute or foot sign (a single prime)
for@* second or inch sign (a double prime)
for@ble hash
for^ short or unstressed syllable
          26. print symbols
for long or stressed syllable
for., ditto
for doubtful stress or quantity
for? cross
           braille reference signs
forpble page or pages
forvble volume or volumes
forchble chapter or chapters
             ::::::::::::




















          3. list of contractions
      31. simple upper wordsigns
forb but forp people forch child
forc can forq quite forsh shall
ford do forr rather forth this
fore every fors so forwh which
forf from fort that forou out
forg go foru us forst still
forh have forv very
forj just forw will
fork knowledge forx it
forl like fory you
form more forz as
forn not
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
     32. simple upper groupsigns
  the signs for and, for, of, the,
with may be used as wordsigns.

for and and forch ch fored ed forble ble
forfor for forgh gh forer er foring ing
forof of forsh sh forou ou
for the the forth th forow ow
forwith with forwh wh forst st
                    forar ar
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
          33. lower contractions
          33. lower contractions
wordsigns
    foren enough
    for! to (sequenced)
    for) were
    for? his
    forin! into (sequenced)
    for" by (sequenced)
    for" was
initial groupsigns
    for; be (also used as word)
    for: con
    for. dis
    for- com
initial-medial-terminal groupsigns
    foren en
    forin in (also used as word)
medial groupsigns
    for, ea
    for; bb
    for: cc
    for. dd
    for! ff
    for) gg
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,


        34. composite wordsigns
        34. composite wordsigns
  these wordsigns may be used as parts of words.

forupon upon forc cannot
forword word forhad had
for^the these formany many
for^th those forspirit spirit
for^wh whose forworld world
               forthe their

forday day forright right
forever ever forsome some
forfather father fortime time
forhere here forunder under
forknow know forwork work
forlord lord foryoung young
formother mother forthere there
forname name forcharacter character
forone one forthrough through
forpart part forwhere where
forquestion question forought ought
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,





       35. composite groupsigns
       35. composite groupsigns
  these groupsigns may be used only medially and
terminally.

foround ound forence ence foration ation
forance ance forong ong forally ally
forsion sion forful ful
forless less fortion tion
forount ount forness ness
            forment ment
            fority ity
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,















            36. shortforms
            36. shortforms
    about about
    above above
    according according
    across across
    after after
    afternoon afternoon
    afterward afterward
    again again
    against against
    almost almost
    already already
    also also
    although although
    altogether altogether
    always always
    because because
    before before
    behind behind
    below below
    beneath beneath
    beside beside
    between between
    beyond beyond
    blind blind
    braille braille
    children children
            36. shortforms
    conceive conceive
    conceiving conceiving
    could could
    deceive deceive
    deceiving deceiving
    declare declare
    declaring declaring
    either either
    first first
    friend friend
    good good
    great great
    herself herself
    him him
    himself himself
    immediate immediate
    its its
    itself itself
    letter letter
    little little
    much much
    must must
    myself myself
    necessary necessary
    neither neither
    o'clock o'clock
    oneself oneself
            36. shortforms
    ourselves ourselves
    paid paid
    perceive perceive
    perceiving perceiving
    perhaps perhaps
    quick quick
    receive receive
    receiving receiving
    rejoice rejoice
    rejoicing rejoicing
    said said
    should should
    such such
    themselves themselves
    thyself thyself
    today today (or) to-day
    together together
    tomorrow tomorrow (or) to-morrow
    tonight tonight (or) to-night
    would would
    your your
    yourself yourself
    yourselves yourselves
             ::::::::::::





       4. use of punctuation signs
  where a string of punctuation and/or composition
signs occurs, they should be placed in the order
illustrated below.

    open bracket
    open quotation mark
      italic sign
      double italic sign
        letter sign
        double letter sign
        non-roman letter sign
        numeral sign
          apostrophe
            capital sign
            double capital sign
            triple capital sign
            decimal point
              accent sign

  any number of punctuation signs may be
written in an unspaced string, even when they are
all lower signs not in contact with an upper
sign.
    examples: werehis 1389); "help ...!"
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
           41. apostrophe
           41. apostrophe
  411. when the apostrophe is used for the
suppression of the initial or final letters of a word,
print's spacing should normally be followed. but if
the spacing is inconsistent or indeterminate, a
space should be left in braille.
    example: and loves to live i' this' sun
  412. for the sake of clarity it is sometimes
necessary to insert the apostrophe in braille when omitted
in print.
    examples: the 1930's; p's and q's;
gp's; m.p.'s.; but: mps' pay.
  the penultimate example requires the
apostrophe since it is followed by a full
stop. when not followed by a full stop, this case
would not require an apostrophe if not present
in print.
    example: m.pdds
  413. division should not be made at the braille
line immediately after the apostrophe when the letter or
letters preceding it do not form a syllable.
    example: charg`e d'affaires; l'@ile
joyeuse; table d'hthte.
  414. omitted letters in a word, indicated in
print by dots or asterisks, should be shown in braille
by an equivalent number of dot 3's unspaced
from one another and from the letters between which they lie, whether
            42. brackets
spaced or unspaced in print.
    examples: do''n (damn); like...'n
(london); go...'ow (glasgow); you...
(york); r'b'ns'n (robinson);
con...''in'ple (constantinople).
  when the number of dots or asterisks in print
seems to be different from the number of omitted
letters, braille should not attempt to correct this.
    example: but...d (bastard).
  such words may generally be divided at the braille
line according to the usual rules of word division,
provided the second line does not begin with a dot
3.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            42. brackets
  421. if more than one paragraph occurs in
a bracketed passage, the opening bracket (either
round or square) should be repeated before each
paragraph, the closing bracket appearing only
at the end of the final paragraph.
  if a bracketed paragraph contains listed
items which are indented in the braille in cell 5 or
7, etc., it is not necessary to reopen the brackets
before each such item. (see also 917.)
  422. round and square brackets do not
necessarily alternate as outer and inner quotation
marks normally do. print should be followed in this
            42. brackets
matter.
  423. when a portion of a word is enclosed in
brackets of whatever kind, these should be retained in
braille and the letter sign should not be used. contractions within
or adjacent to the brackets should be used with care.
    examples: egggghead), g[eorge],
nounggs), sggoundgged, staggffggord.
  424. when a bracketed number occurs within
a word, a hyphen should be inserted after the first part of the
word, followed by the bracketed number spaced on
either side, followed by the second part of the word.
  425. when a question mark or exclamation mark
or other punctuation stands by itself in print, it should be
enclosed in round brackets in braille.
  426. brace brackets which appear in an
ordinary line of text follow the same rules as
do round or square brackets. where print uses
large brace brackets to enclose a stack of
items, it may be convenient to show this by simply
listing those items across the page, enclosing the list
within ordinary brace brackets, and separating the
items from one another with appropriate
punctuation.
  427. when print uses only a closing
bracket (half bracket) for lettered or numbered
paragraphs, etc., braille should generally follow

             43. dashes
print.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
             43. dashes
  431. print should generally be followed with
regard to the length of the dash.
  432. whatever the spacing of a conjunctive
short dash in print, it should be brailled unspaced from
the words which precede and follow it, unless, as is
permissible, the dash appears at the beginning or the
end of a braille line.
  433. when a short or long dash is used
to indicate an interrupted sentence it should be brailled
unspaced from the word or part-word which precedes it.
  434. a braille line may end with a short or
long dash even when preceded by an opening bracket
or quotation sign. the dash may begin a line of
braille even when followed by punctuation or by the line
sign.
  435. where the dash is preceded by other
punctuation, this combination may not be divided at the
braille line, in spite of 434.
  436. when a short or long dash
indicates suppressed letters of a word, the dash should
be unspaced from the remaining letters, and the whole string
should be in the same braille line. the letter sign is not
required for the retained letters.
  437. when a short or long dash
            44. ellipsis
represents an omitted word, it must be spaced as
a word.
  438. in an italicised passage beginning
or ending with a short or long dash, the dash should not
be included within the italics in braille.
  but a spaced dash occurring within an italicised
passage should be counted as a word, though it should never
itself be preceded by the italic sign.
  439. where print uses the dash as a
quotation mark, braille should follow suit. in this
case the dash should be spaced as an ordinary
quotation sign and may not be separated from following
text by the end of the braille line. braille should not insert a
dash, eg as a closing quotation mark, when print
does not do so.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            44. ellipsis
  441. a series of dots in print is shown
in braille by the ellipsis, which is treated as a word
for the purposes of spacing.
    examples:
"love is life's ... sign."
"... is life's only sign."
"love is life's only ...."
  442. if print shows, either by the use of an
initial capital or by the spacing of the dots, a
clear or consistent intention to use an extra dot
             45. hyphen
to represent a full stop, this should be followed in
braille. if print employs 4 equally spaced
dots, but it cannot be decided whether the stop should
precede or follow the ellipsis, braille should use
the 3-dot ellipsis only.
  443. in an italicised passage beginning
or ending with an ellipsis, the ellipsis should not
be included within the italics in braille.
  but an ellipsis occurring within an italicised
passage should be counted as a word, though it should never
itself be preceded by the italic sign.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
             45. hyphen
  451. in expressions which end or begin with a
hyphen, a space should always be left in braille after
or before the hyphen, as appropriate.
    examples: sitting- and dining-room;
forty-one or comtwo.
  452. the hyphen in a compound or divided
word must not begin a braille line.
  453. where words are hyphenated to separate
off particular parts of the word, or where a hyphen is
used at the start of a suffix, etc., for example
in a grammar book, a contraction should be avoided
if there is any danger of the word or word segment
being misread. specific rules for particular
contractions are given in section 8 on the use of
         46. oblique stroke
contractions, and in particular in section 814 on
word endings.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
         46. oblique stroke
  461. when an oblique stroke is used
to separate groups of letters and/or numbers, the letter
sign or numeral sign should always be repeated.
    examples: ab/cd; abst1234;
123/456; 578/cjst34.
  for the treatment of an oblique stroke placed
between single letters see 719.
  462. when an oblique stroke is used
to denote "per", it should be retained in braille whether
there are words, abbreviations, letters or numbers on
either side.
    examples: 100/sec; 100/second.
  463. the oblique stroke may not begin a
braille line. when a group of words containing an
oblique stroke is divided after the stroke at
the braille line, a hyphen must be inserted after the
stroke.
  if a string consists entirely of letters and/or
numbers, as opposed to whole words or
abbreviations, it should only be divided if it is
very long.
  464. an appropriate substitute, such
as a hyphen, brackets, or the word or, should be
          47. quotation marks
used instead of the oblique stroke when it could
reasonably be read as the contraction for st.
(see also 719.)
    examples: typist-stenographer; water
(air) pistol.
  465. of the simple wordsigns only and,
for, of, the, with may normally be used in
conjunction with the oblique stroke.
    examples: and/or; instout; tostfrom.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
          47. quotation marks
  471. braille should generally use the one-cell
quotation signs for double inverted commas and the two-
cell quotation signs for single inverted commas.
  472. if print uses single inverted commas
to represent outer quotes and double inverted commas
to represent inner quotes throughout a text, the
signs may be reversed in braille for space and
reading convenience. when this occurs, a
transcriber's note should be inserted at the
beginning of the text if this information is regarded as of
particular importance to the transcription.
  473. where print uses the two sorts of
inverted commas to make an essential distinction, as
for example between spoken dialogue and thoughts,
braille should follow suit.
  however, if print uses italics to indicate
          47. quotation marks
thoughts, braille should adopt this practice.
  474. where quotations occur within quotations,
the two sorts of quotation marks should normally
alternate in braille, regardless of the print
practice. this even applies when quotes are
inserted in the braille around an extract: in this case
the first level of quotes appearing within the
extract will be inner quotes in the braille, etc.
  475. in quotations of more than one
paragraph or stanza, the opening quotation sign
should be repeated before each paragraph or stanza,
even if not shown in print. it should also be repeated
before a centred heading or stanza number. however,
the closing quotation sign should not be used until the
end of the quoted matter.
  476. if a quoted paragraph contains
listed items which are indented in braille in cell 5
or 7, etc., it is not necessary to reopen the
quotes before each such item.
  477. when print reopens quotation marks
at the beginning of each line of a document, poem,
etc., this practice should not be followed in braille.
             ::::::::::::






       5. use of composition signs
  for the order of signs see the beginning of section
4.
             51. accents
  511. the accent sign is placed before an
accented letter, whether the accent appears above or below
the letter in print. it should be used to represent print
accents whenever the special braille signs for accented
letters are not used.
    examples: caf`e, gar@con.
  an accented letter must not form part of a contraction.
    example: g@en@eral.
  512. the accent sign is used to mark
english stressed or separate syllables. it may
then be used before a contraction.
    examples: belov`ed, bless`ed.
  513. when a capital letter in print is not
accented for typographical reasons, it is
desirable that the accent should be shown in braille.
  514. the special signs for accented letters
should not normally be regarded as an integral part of
standard english braille, but should be reserved for foreign
language textbooks, etc.
  515. in texts where the special codes for
accented letters are used (see appendix ii), and
where the letter sign method is appropriate, each
            52. capitals
word, or each element of a hyphenated compound word,
containing an accented letter must be preceded by a letter
sign and written uncontracted. the placing of the
letter sign is not affected if the word happens to be
divided at the braille line.
    examples: crtheme brwhlfore; lforvi-
strauss; lforvy-bruhl; lforvy-
fouquitheres.
  in grammar books or foreign language
texts the use of the codes for accented letters may be
indicated by special layout etc., or by general
convention, rather than by using letter signs. except for
these cases, the letter sign method will normally be
required.
  516. if, within the main foreign text, a
second foreign language is employed, the
latter's accents may be rendered by using either the
accent sign (dot 4) or the special accent
signs for that language.
  517. when vowels are elided, as in like' and
do', the letter sign if required follows the like'
or do'. (see also rule 413.)
    examples: l'fortfor; d'ghtre.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            52. capitals
  521. capital signs are not generally used
in the united kingdom. when they are, the following
            52. capitals
rules apply:
  the capital sign is placed before a letter which in
print is capitalised.
    example: Sir Winston Churchill.
  the double capital sign is used to indicate that
a whole word or a group of letters in print is
capitalised.
    example: PARLIAMENT.
  522. it may occasionally be necessary to use
capital signs for clarification of the text.
    examples: "help! help! HELP!";
Wood figures (where Wood is a personal
name).
  in particular, where print employs capitals
to distinguish one meaning from another, braille may need
to use capital signs.
    example: in this book the concepts "idea"
and "Idea" differ as follows.
  (see also 75 on unit abbreviations.)
  523. the double capital sign must be
repeated after a hyphen in a compound word. but if a
word that is not compound is hyphenated at the end of a
braille line, the double capital sign should not be
repeated at the beginning of the new line.
    example: TITLE-PAGES.
  524. if capitals are generally being shown
in braille, as in typists' examination papers, a
            54. italics
single capital letter with no stop after it which would
normally be preceded by a letter sign should be
preceded by the combination letter sign plus capital
sign.
    example: Mr J Smith.
  if spaced capitals appear in print, the
triple capital sign should be brailled before each
word.
    example: I AM JOHN
SMITH.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
          53. dot locator
  531. the dot locator is used
to identify braille characters. in a series of listed or
tabulated braille characters the dot locator should
normally precede each of them. but when there is
reference to individual braille characters as such in
continuous text, it will generally be desirable for each
of them to be both preceded and followed by the dot
locator, especially when they are in contact with
punctuation signs.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            54. italics
  541. the italic sign is placed before a
word to show that it is printed in italic type.
    example: a priori; prime
minister.
            54. italics
  if more than three consecutive words are
italicised, the first word is preceded by the double
italic sign and the last word by the single italic
sign.
    example: the houses of parliament.
  542. where, as in most centred headings,
print italics may be regarded as pictorial,
they need not be reproduced in braille.
  however, when print italics are ignored,
significant reversions to ordinary type should be
italicised in braille.
  543. in quoted extracts, either prose
or verse, set in print with both italics and
quotation marks, the italics are generally unnecessary
in braille.
  544. where print reverts to ordinary type
for odd words or phrases within an italicised
passage, the italics should not be terminated in
braille. instead one of the following procedures should be
adopted:
    (a) if the words in ordinary type
constitute a name or title, or are in ordinary
type to indicate that they are foreign, they should be
quoted.
    (b) if the words are set in ordinary type
to give them particular emphasis, they should each be
preceded by the single or double capital sign, as
            54. italics
appropriate.
    (c) sometimes the change of type is to be
disregarded in braille, as for instance when the words in question
occur in square brackets.
  545. where print reverts from italics
to ordinary type for an odd letter or letters (usually
at the end of a word), this change of type can be
disregarded in braille.
  546. where a date or other number forms
part of an italicised title or other phrase,
it should be included within the italics in braille whether
or not it has been italicised in print.
  547. in italicised passages consisting of
more than one paragraph the double italic sign must
be repeated before each paragraph. this rule
applies even if the paragraph consists of three
or fewer words. however, the last word of the passage
is preceded by the single italic sign whether or
not this final word constitutes a paragraph.
  548. when an unhyphenated italicised
word in print is divided at the braille line, the
italic sign should not be repeated at the beginning
of the new line.
  however, italicised compound words and words whose
components are joined by the hyphen require the
italic sign after each hyphen.
    examples: blue-eyed; co-operation;
            54. italics
well-beloved; well-to-do.
  note that the words today, tomorrow, tonight, when
written with hyphens, do not count as compound words because
they are brailled as shortforms which do not contain the
hyphens.
  549. in phrases of more than three
italicised words joined by hyphens, the double
italic sign should precede the first word and the single
italic sign the last word.
    examples: never-to-be-forgotten;
out-of-the-way.
  5410. where the last word of an italicised
passage is a hyphenated compound word, the closing
italic sign should precede the final part of the
compound word.
    example: it was a sad home-coming.
  5411. compound numbers separated by the
hyphen should be treated as separate numbers for the
purpose of italics.
    examples: 1939-.40; vii-xx;
12th-15th.
  5412. english words joined by the apostrohe
are treated as a single word for the purpose of
italics.
    examples: o'clock; tess of the
d'urbervilles; morte d'arthur; nearly
five o'clock.
            54. italics
  5413. foreign words joined by the apostrophe
are treated separately for the purpose of
italics.
    examples: l'.orange; le roi
s'.amuse.
  5414. words or abbreviations joined by an
oblique stroke which is to be retained in braille are
treated separately for the purpose of italics.
    example: hest.she; please state
malest.female.
  5415. when an italicised abbreviation
consists of a string of signs including more than one
abbreviation point, the italic sign should not be
repeated after each abbreviation point.
    examples: i.e.; ph.d.; r.s.v.p.
  5416. where part of a word is italicised, the
italicised portion should be separated by a hyphen
from the rest of the word. care should be taken in the use of
contractions.
    examples: domi-neering; grow-+;
grow-+; un-en-ding; un-easy; weari-
ness.
  5417. each italicised title in a
succession of titles should be italicised
separately, but a subtitle should not be
italicised separately from the main title.
  5418. when an italicised phrase is
            55. letter sign
followed by a bracketed italicised abbreviation
of or alternative to that phrase, they should be
italicised separately.
  5419. when two consecutive abbreviations,
words or phrases are italicised for different
reasons, they should be italicised separately in
braille.
    example: cf. as you like it.
  5420. where print uses underlining, braille should
italicise except where a distinction between
italics and underlining needs to be maintained.
  5421. it is generally not necessary to italicise
titles, etc., in braille if not italicised in
print. however, there may be occasions when it is
desirable to italicise in order to avoid
ambiguity (the title being distinguished in print
by initial capitals).
    example: in the station he saw a man
looking at the times.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            55. letter sign
  551. the letter sign is used in braille
to distinguish letters from words.
    example: i have always liked sections h and
i.
  the letter sign is also used to distinguish letters that
follow figures without a space.
            55. letter sign
    example: 22a.
  552. in ordinary text a foreign word or
name consisting of a single letter which could be read as an
english wordsign, including cases where such a
single letter is preceded and/or followed by a
hyphen, should be preceded by the letter sign.
    examples: adagio e cantabile;
ortega y gasset; u thant; a priori.
  this may not be necessary in specialised contexts,
such as grammar books, etc. (see also
515).
  553. when a word is spelt out with hyphens
between the letters, the letter sign is not required.
    example: will-i-not-do-o-will.
  such a string should only be divided if at least
three letters appear on each braille line. such
division may be made without regard to syllables.
  554. the letter sign normally precludes the
use of contractions in any word or letter-group which it
introduces (but see 834).
  555. the influence of the letter sign does not
carry beyond punctuation or composition signs.
    examples: a-team, d-day, l-
plates, t-shirt, x-ray; folio 60 b-
d; chords ceg-dfa; (rggac;
esnggm); the fraction x/ity; ac/dc.
  556. when a reference letter or roman
            56. line sign
numeral appears in brackets, the letter sign must
be used.
    examples: (a), (w); (i),
(viii).
  557. where single letters are enclosed in
quotation marks or italicised in print, the letter
sign should generally be used instead in braille.
  558. where letters of the alphabet are used as
designations, the letter sign should be used, and the
abbreviation point, if shown in print, should be
omitted.
    examples: point a in the line ab; row
n; the spy x
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            56. line sign
  561. the line sign should be spaced from a
preceding word when there is no intervening punctuation,
should be followed by either a space or the end of a braille
line, and may not begin a braille line.
  562. the line sign is normally unspaced
from preceding punctuation. however, a space should be
left before the line sign when it is preceded by the
apostrophe or hyphen.
  563. a dash should be brailled unspaced from a
following line sign and such a combination may begin a
braille line. but if a dash occurs at the beginning
of a verse line, it must be spaced from the preceding
       57. non-roman scripts
line sign.
  564. an ellipsis ending a line of
poetry should be spaced from the following line sign.
such a combination may begin a braille line.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
       57. non-roman scripts
  [note that this topic is dealt with differently
in braille mathematics notation.]
  571. single non-roman letters or strings of
letters occurring in english context should be preceded
by the non-roman letter sign. neither the ordinary letter
sign nor the italic sign should be used.
    examples: ,p (pi); ms ,th
(manuscript theta); strain ,b (strain beta);
,ab (alpha beta).
  572. in passages of three or fewer
words of greek or other languages not using the
roman alphabet, occurring in english context,
each word should be preceded by the ordinary letter sign.
in passages of more than three words the double letter
sign should be used before the first word and the single letter
sign before the last word.
             ::::::::::::






            6. mathematics
         61. cardinal numbers
  611. cardinal numbers should be preceded by the
numeral sign; numbers with more than one digit
require only an initial numeral sign.
    examples: 3; 62; 100.
  612. omitted digits, however shown in
print, should be represented in braille by the
equivalent number of dot 3's.
    examples: 121197'. 4''g.
  but if print uses a single apostrophe
to represent the first two digits of a date,
only one dot 3 is necessary in braille and it should
follow the numeral sign.
    example: the '45.
  613. the influence of the numeral sign
carries across the hyphen, but not across any other
punctuation or composition signs that link two
numbers in a string, except as provided in
612.
    examples: 1914-18; 1630(1);
1770?-1827; 1770-)8(1850; 12th-
18th; section 47(1).
  however, the following are still possible (where "cab"
and "gag" are words).
    8-312 train; 55-717 book.
         61. cardinal numbers
  where a compound number is divided onto two
braille lines, the numeral sign must be repeated at
the beginning of the second line after the hyphen.
    example: .................. 1914-
18.
  see also 619.
  614. braille should follow print in using the
dash or the hyphen when one of these is used in
strings such as compound dates, vital statistics,
sports scores, odds, voting figures, etc.
    examples: 1981--1990; 36-24-36;
36--24--36; 3-1; 3--1; 40-30;
40--30.
  615. abbreviated dates appear in
various forms in print. in braille they should be coded
with the numeral sign or letter sign as required.
they may not be divided at the braille line. the
oblique stroke and any other punctuation between
numbers should be avoided.
    examples: 8936, 8ix36.
  when the second part of a compound date is
suppressed in print, the hyphen should be retained
in braille, but written unspaced from any following
punctuation.
    example: (1882-).
  616. times of the clock are coded using the
numeral sign.
         61. cardinal numbers
    examples: 3 am; 530 p.m.;
0800; 1330 gmt; 1330 (no space in
print).
  the french form can be unspaced in standard english
braille.
    example: 10h25.
  617. telephone numbers consisting
entirely of grouped figures should be coded with the
numeral sign, which should be repeated to mark the
beginning of each print group.
    examples: 0733370777;
3881266/7; 0800500212.
  where alternative numbers are shown in
brackets after the main number, or where
brackets enclose an area prefix number,
braille follows a similar procedure.
    examples: 2331597(8);
(081(8680765.
  it is desirable that telephone numbers should not
be divided onto two braille lines. if division
has to be made because of length, this should be done before
a numeral sign and a hyphen should be inserted at the
end of the first line.
  618. groups of letters and figures, such as
car registration numbers, old style telephone
numbers, gramophone record numbers, etc.,
should be brailled as a string if unspaced in print, and
         62. contracted numbers
full stops, hyphens, oblique strokes and
blank spaces, used in print as mere
separators, may sometimes conveniently be
disregarded, with the grouping simply indicated
by repetition of the numeral or letter sign. such
groups should not be divided at the braille line unless
they are very long.
    examples: der526g; 33cx1234;
asd527/8; mblea; bbc2; hambleaeig.
  however, when separators are retained, care should
be taken over the use of the letter sign.
    examples: 3-cd set; 13/m.
  619. when a hyphen joins two number
strings, either or both of which are of mixed denomination
(for example times of the day, dates, compound
section numbers, etc.), the numeral sign should
be repeated after the hyphen.
    examples: 530-630; 5-730;
630-7. but 5-6.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
         62. contracted numbers
  621. in calendars, crossword puzzles,
etc., where it is desirable that 1- and 2-digit
numbers should occupy the same amount of space as
one another, the following method of contracting
numbers (which may be written with or without the
numeral sign) may be adopted.
            63. decimals
    dot 3 written in the same cell as the
unit figure adds 10 to the number: k 11;
l 12; t 10.
    dots 3-6 written in the same cell as the
unit figure adds 20: v 22; y 24;
with 20.
    dot 6 written in the same cell as the
unit figure adds 30: ed 36; ow 39;
w 30.
    the numbers 40 to 49 are indicated by the
unit figures being written as lower signs: #:
43; #) 47; #" 40.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            63. decimals
  631. decimals always require a
numeral sign.
    examples:
,7 point seven
0,7 nought point seven
8,93 eight point nine three
  632. decimal coinage also uses the
decimal point.
    examples: l8,75; $8,75.
  633. when two numbers are joined by a
hyphen and one or both are decimals, the
numeral sign should be repeated after the hyphen.
    examples: 2-5,5; 2,2-5,5;
            64. fractions
2,2-5.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            64. fractions
  641. fractions are written with the
numerator and denominator as upper and lower
signs respectively without an intervening blank
space or second numeral sign. the
numerator 1 should not be omitted.
    examples: 1en one fifth; 3? three
eighths.
  642. a mixed number must be treated as an
undivided string. the fraction, which retains its
numeral sign, immediately follows the whole
number.
    example: 13,! one and three
sixteenths.
  643. where mixed numbers are connected
to other numbers by a hyphen or dash in print, the
numeral sign must be repeated after the hyphen or
dash and no separation sign is required after the
first number.
    examples: 3--51bbBe 3-51bbBe
31;-5Be 31;-51bb.
  644. a halfpenny is written as a
fraction of a penny, as in print.
    examples: 71bbp; 1bbp; 71bbd.
  645. where in stock exchange quotations,
        65. mathematical signs
etc., the numerator of a fraction is divided from
the denominator by a hyphen (fraction line) in
print, and the fraction is spaced from the whole
number, the whole expression should be written in
braille as an ordinary fraction.
    example: 825,ff.
  646. when a fraction is printed with the
numerator above the denominator, but with the letters of the
ordinal termination added afterwards, the termination should be
omitted in braille.
  647. in the denominator of a fraction,
since it is written in the lower part of the cell, the
numerical comma should never be shown in braille, even
if it appears in print.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
        65. mathematical signs
  651. if a number contains more than three
figures, a comma is often used in print
to separate them into groups of three. if shown in
print, this comma should be represented in braille by the
numerical comma (dot 3). the numerical comma
should also be used where print has a blank space
to separate the groups of figures.
    example: 4'ejj'jjj four million
five hundred thousand.
  652. a number consisting of four or more
figures may be divided after a numerical comma
        65. mathematical signs
by a hyphen at the end of a braille line, the remaining
figures being written on the following line without
a numeral sign.
    example: 1'bcd'-
efg.
  if a comma is not used in print, such a
division should not be made unless the number is very
long.
  653. a space is normally required before
operation and relation signs in braille.
    examples:
1 ff2 -3 (0
4 83 $2 (6
3 conbled con5
  however, these signs must be unspaced from preceding
opening brackets and quotation marks.
    example: ips (gginches per second).
  expressions like the following should also be
unspaced, and, if they are followed by punctuation
(as below), the separation sign should be used.
    examples: ,a-; 11ffBe 15
daysffBe ,a---very good.
  654. the mathematical separation sign
(dot 6) should always be used to separate a
fraction from following punctuation. it should be used
also between a whole number and punctuation where the
punctuation sign could reasonably be misread as
        65. mathematical signs
the denominator of a fraction. the separation sign
is unnecessary in cases where its omission would cause
no confusion.
    examples:
1. one followed by full stop
21; two and a half
21bb. two and a half followed by full stop
33. three and three quarters
45,! four and five sixteenths
1066. ten sixty-six followed by full stop
  655. the subscript sign and
superscript sign indicate that the expression which
follows is a subscript or superscript to the
preceding expression. indices which are whole
numbers are brailled as lower numbers without the
numeral sign. with the exception of chemical
formulae, in literary braille it is not permissible
to omit the subscript sign, as it often is in
mathematics notation. the use of these signs is not
restricted to mathematical expressions or
contexts: for example, their use may be
required for special reference marks.
    examples:
ming; (m squared)
cming: (cm cubed)
xing-enough (x to the power minus five)
Hbbo (formula for water)
         67. roman numerals
eingv
bch,; (vitamin b 12)
mchsun (mass of the sun)
  for more complicated indices see braille
mathematics notation. for the use of the capital
sign in chemical formulae, see braille science
notation.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
         66. ordinal numbers
  661. ordinal numbers are formed by adding the
appropriate endings to the cardinal numbers.
    examples: 1st first, 2nd second,
3rd third, 57th fifty-seventh.
  662. when an arabic number is followed
by a foreign ordinal termination, the abbreviation
point should be used to separate the figure from the
termination, and contractions may not be used.
    examples: 3.@eme; 3.theme; 1dder;
8.vo; 1.o.
  similarly, an abbreviation point should be
inserted when an arabic number is followed by an
english ordinal termination which could otherwise be read
as an extra digit.
    example: 22.d.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
         67. roman numerals
  671. roman numerals should be preceded either
         67. roman numerals
by the letter sign or the capital sign, but the letter
sign is generally used in the united kingdom.
    examples: v; xxxiv.
  672. the letter sign must be repeated after a
hyphen or a dash connecting roman numerals.
    examples: viii-xiii; lxxxix-
cxliv; viii--xiii; lv--lxxxix.
  673. cardinal roman numerals may be
followed in a string by the letter sign or the numeral
sign, and stops used in print as mere
separators can generally be omitted (see
615, 618).
    examples: xva; vic; hamlet
iv2.
  674. roman numerals should be separated from
their ordinal terminations by the abbreviation point.
contractions may be used in english terminations
only. note that both methods of coding foreign
accents are possible.
    examples: x.th; xxi.st; idder;
xii.e; xii.@eme; xii.theme.
             ::::::::::::







       7. abbreviations and symbols
         71. print abbreviations
  711. when a print abbreviation employs
one or more abbreviation points, braille should follow
suit and no letter sign should be used.
    examples: a.sddedda.n.;
b.sc.ggecon.); cf.; dddlitt.; mus.bac.;
ph.d.; u.ndde.s.c.o.; etc.; op. cit.
  712. where the abbreviation of a single word
consists of more than one letter, the letter sign is not
required even when no point appears in print.
note that for the purpose of this rule "etc" is
regarded as a single word.
    examples: etc, ms, mss, nr, rd
  713. contractions may be used in english
abbreviations if they would have been permissible in the
full word, provided they cannot be mistaken for
shortforms or other wordsigns and as long as other
rules for contractions are not violated.
    examples: do (ditto); nat hist; st
(saint or street); st. (saint or street);
ad fin.; att. gen.; it. (italian);
nem. con.
  where an abbreviation consists of two or more whole
or part words without abbreviation points presented in
a single string, the same conditions for contracting
         71. print abbreviations
apply.
    example: natwest
  714. braille should avoid using the letter sign and
abbreviation point in the same abbreviation string.
    examples: more. dupont; m dupont; mr
it.; mr x; rsvp.; rsvp
  715. in personal initials and postal
codes braille should follow print's spacing and its
use or non-use of points. initials must be
spaced from a following surname.
    examples: cpe bach; c p e bach;
c.p.e. bach; can. people. every. bach; gbs;
g.bdds.; ec4; s.w$1; w1n 6aa
  however, when two initials are joined by a
hyphen and a point appears only after the second,
braille should insert a point after the first letter also.
    examples: just.-people. sartre; like.-go.
(lloyd-george)
  716. when an abbreviation consists of the
initial letters of words without points, the letter sign
should be used.
    examples: aids; am; arcm; ash;
bbc; cgs; sos; ussr; unesco; vat
  however, the letter sign is not required when an
acronym is written with the first letter in the string as a
capital and the rest as small letters, or when the
entire acronym is printed as an ordinary word;
         71. print abbreviations
and in such cases contractions can be used.
    examples: nato; unesco; laser; radar
  717. when an abbreviation without stops
consists of initial letters and whole or part words which
are pronounced as such, the elements should be spaced,
each being treated in accordance with the above
paragraphs.
    examples: ba (oxon); b ed; dip
tp; m inst p
  however, if such a mixed abbreviation is
pronounced letter by letter, the letter sign is sufficient
and no spaces need be inserted.
    example: bsc
  718. abbreviations may only be divided
onto two braille lines at a space.
  719. where the hyphen or oblique stroke
separates single letters in an abbreviation, and
facsimile representation is not essential, the
letter sign should be used and the hyphen or stroke should
be omitted.
    examples: dg (disregarding hyphen);
ac, co, io, rt (disregarding strokes)
  where an oblique stroke is used in print
to abridge a word, it will often be necessary in braille
to give the word in full, rather than reproducing the
oblique stroke method which could be difficult
to read.
          72. print symbols
    example: breakfast; not bstfast
  7110. where a print abbreviation does not
save space as against grade 2 braille, the
abbreviation should generally be dispensed with.
    examples: mt. (mount); nr. (near);
pt. (part); rt. (right); will. (with); wld. (world)
  but where, for example, manuscript is being
reproduced, it may be necessary to retain such print
abbreviations, or to explain them if they cannot be
coded as they stand without ambiguity in braille.
  7111. where an abbreviation of a word is shown
in print with the terminal letter or letters written as a
superscript, no special indication of this is
normally required in braille, and all the letters can be
treated on the same basis. a letter sign should be
used if the string of letters would otherwise be
ambiguous. provided that the letter sign is not
used, contractions may be used according to 713.
paragraph 7110 is still applicable in this
case.
    examples: wth (with, shown in print with a
superscript th); wh (which, shown in print with a
superscript h).
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
          72. print symbols
ampersand
  721. in braille the ampersand may be spaced
          72. print symbols
or unspaced in accordance with print. if print
uses an ampersand in a foreign language, braille
should follow suit.
    examples: marks & spencer; b&b;
&c (etc).

arrows
  722. the composite signs for arrows should be
treated as words for the purposes of spacing.
    example: ow: to the left, cono to the right.

asterisk and dagger
  723. in braille a space is usually left
before and after the asterisk in a line of ordinary
text. it is generally treated as a word for the
purposes of spacing with respect to adjacent
punctuation. a series of two or more asterisks
should normally be spaced from one another in braille. the
same rules apply to the dagger sign.
    examples:
items marked * are free.
[* exact number not known.]
in greece *--and surely
  724. where an asterisk is used to indicate
a footnote, it should normally be placed as in
print with respect to adjacent punctuation. when it
is followed by a note number, it should be written
          72. print symbols
unspaced from the numeral sign. the asterisk, or
asterisk and number group, is spaced according
to 723. the same rules apply to the dagger
sign (see also 942).
    examples:
"and so to bed." *3
(as in shakespeare. *bled)
  725. the braille asterisk may also be used
to represent other reference symbols occurring in
print.
  726. a series of asterisks on a line
alone in print should be shown in braille by three
asterisks centred on a line alone and divided from
one another by a single space. centred asterisks
should be used in braille to indicate breaks in the text
however such breaks are shown in print, e.g. a
line of asterisks or dots or a blank line.
a line of asterisks may begin or end a braille
page.
  727. where one or more asterisks occur in
print to denote a presumed omission, the
ellipsis should be used in braille.
    examples: they travelled through sumatra,
java, bali, lombok, ... and timor.
  for omitted letters see 414.


          72. print symbols

commercial "at"
  728. the commercial sign for "at" should be
represented in braille by the word "at".

crosses
  729. when a series of x's is used
to represent kisses, the appropriate number
of x's should be brailled unspaced from each other and
without a letter sign.
  7210. where print uses a cross between two
breeds of animal or two varieties of
plant, etc., braille should use the cross sign.
as usual, this sign should normally be spaced on the
left but not on the right, unless a special display
format is required, as in a table, etc.
    examples: collie 8alsatian; rosa
8felicita.
  7211. when it is clear that the symbol of the
cross is being used to signify death, it should be
replaced by the two-space sign "do.".

ditto
  7212. the ditto sign for., should be spaced
as a word. when it occurs in contact with punctuation
the separation sign is not necessary. where print uses a
series of ditto signs, one will generally suffice
            73. references
in braille.

hash
  7213. where hash is followed by a number,
a second numeral sign is not necessary in braille.
however, in this case hash may be omitted in braille
where its representation is not essential. when hash
is not followed by a number, it may not be
omitted.
    examples: @8; @ble

male and female symbols
  7214. the print symbols for male and
female should be shown in braille by the two-space
signs "more." and "from." respectively.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            73. references
  731. the following rules apply
to abbreviation and number groups used in giving
references; for example, to pages, chapters,
volumes, etc. in books, to acts, scenes and
lines in plays, and to chapters and verses in the
bible.
  732. abbreviations which follow the number are
generally coded according to the rules given in section
71, and are spaced or unspaced from the number
in accordance with print, except that, where there is
            73. references
an abbreviation point in print, or the abbreviation
consists of two or more letters from the same word, so that
there is no letter sign in braille, the letterggs) of the
abbreviation must be spaced from the number in braille.
    examples: 34 n, 34 not. or 34n
(note on page 34); 78 ff., 78 ff or
78ff (78 and following pages); 25 pp
(25 pages).
  733. abbreviations which precede the number
are generally coded according to the rules given in section
71.
  abbreviations consisting of two or more letters from one
word should be spaced or unspaced from the number according
to print.
    examples: vol 6 (volume 6);
vol$3 (volume 3); ch5 (chapter 5);
chap. 7 (chapter 7); sched. 6 (schedule
6); par$8 (paragraph 8); part 2 (part
2. print may have an abbreviation for "part", but
7110 still applies).
  abbreviations consisting of a single letter or
initials, or the plurals of such abbreviations,
should normally be brailled unspaced from the number, and
in this case the letter sign is unnecessary.
    examples: p6 (page 6); p$7
(page 7 (spaced or unspaced in the print--;
p5-13, p$5-13, pp5-13, pp$5-13
            73. references
(pages 5-13); v$9 or v9 (volume
9); v.ii (volume ii); r$26 (rule
26); s$45 (section 45); ss$12-15
(sections 12-15).
  734. it is sometimes desirable to follow the
print more closely as regards spacing than
provided for in the last paragraph of 733.
    example: can. 6 (chapter 6, as printed
in statutes).
  735. where print employs special
symbols and braille equivalents are available, the
latter should be used. these should normally be unspaced
from the number if they precede it in braille.
    examples: s'3 (section 3); par5
(paragraph 5).
  736. where print uses abbreviations for
books of the bible, play titles, etc., these should
be retained. braille should follow print's use or
non-use of the abbreviation point with single letters or
part words, but separators such as stops occurring
within number groups can be omitted in accordance with
rules 615, 618 and 673. print's
spacing should be observed, and strings should not be
divided at the braille line except after an
abbreviation point or after a hyphen occurring in the
print.

            73. references
    examples:
heb 69 hebrews six nine
1 cor$132 one corinthians thirteen two
ruth 27 ruth two seven
mk. 69-75 mark six nine to seven five
matt.iii12 matthew three twelve
job xxxviii2 job thirty-eight two
macbeth vi8 macbeth act v scene i
    line 8
hamlet iii iii2 hamlet act iii
    scene iii line 2
  737. where print uses both small and
capital roman numerals in references, it may
be necessary to use the capital sign in braille to make
the distinction (see 522); but roman numerals
should never be converted to arabic for this purpose.
    example: refer to ii, IV generally, and
Viii2.
  738. the braille reference signs pble vble chble
should not be used where this would involve deviating from
print with regard to the spacing or form of the
abbreviation, or to the presence or absence of the
abbreviation point. of course, no such restriction
on their use applies to the writing of braille which is
not derived from a print original.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,

         74. scansion and stress
         74. scansion and stress
  741. dots 4-5 should be used to represent
the print sign for a short or unstressed
syllable. dots 4-5-6 should be used to represent
the print sign for a long or stressed syllable. in
general these signs should be brailled before the first vowel
of the syllable, regardless of where they appear in
print. contractions may normally be used after these
signs with the exception of the wordsigns for us, it and
as, and contractions beginning with a righthand character.
    example:
th^e curf^ew tolls th^e knell ^of
    pt^ing day
  for simplicity print often uses the long
signs only.
    example:
the curfew tolls the knell of pting day
  742. dots 3-6, preceded and followed
by a space, should be used to mark the end of a foot
where this is shown in print. dots 3-F3-6,
preceded and followed by a space, should be used
to mark a caesura, or the end of a half-line in
old english verse. either the foot sign or the
caesura sign may begin or end a braille line.
where a foot sign occurs within a word, a hyphen
followed by a space is inserted after the syllable
ending the foot.
         75. unit abbreviations
    example:
still stands the - forest pri- - meval, -- the -
    murmuring - pines and the - hemlocks
  743. when print uses a sign other than
the long or short sign to mark stress, the accent
sign should normally be used in braille.
    example:
st@ill stands the f@orest prim@eval, the
    m`urmuring p@ines and the h@emlocks
  744. if the mark for stress is printed at
the end of the stressed syllable, this arrangement can be
followed in braille, and the apostrophe rather than dot
4 should be used. a double apostrophe should be used
to mark secondary stress.
    examples: prime'val;
commu''nica'tion.
  745. dots 5-6 should represent any
mark used in print to show doubtful or variable
quantity, such as the long and short quantity
marks both appearing above the same syllable.
    example: still stands ...
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
         75. unit abbreviations
  [for further detail on units see braille
mathematics notation.]
  751. braille should use the same unit
abbreviations as print, including any punctuation,
         75. unit abbreviations
even when there is no general agreement in print
on their representation.
    examples:
3 ft. (3 feet)
8 Like or 8 l (8 litres)
2 m (2 metres or miles)
5 s or 5 sec (5 seconds)
  however, when print uses a special symbol,
the equivalent braille sign should be used.
    example: 34 conp (percent).
  braille should not use a unit abbreviation when print
does not.
  752. units appearing before the number in
print should be brailled close up to the following
numeral sign, however spaced in print.
    examples: l3; $2; f5.
  units appearing after the number in print should
follow the number in braille. such units should be
spaced in braille, apart from the following which are
unspaced:
    single-letter monetary units (which will require
the capital sign or the letter sign);
    the degree sign;
    the minute or foot sign (in print, a
single prime);
    the second or inch sign (in print, a
double prime).
         75. unit abbreviations
    examples: 55 g (55 grammes);
89p (89 pence); 6F50 (6 francs
50); 60" (60 degrees); 5inch (5
minutes or 5 feet); 10@* (10
seconds or 10 inches).
  753. upper case letters should be shown by the
capital sign. each capital sign affects
only the following letter.
    examples: 3 Very (3 volts); 5 mA
(5 milliamperes); 8 Hz (8 hertz);
13 MWill (13 megawatts).
  however, in conventional informal abbreviations like the
following no capital signs should be used.
    examples: m.p.g. (miles per
gallon); mph (miles per hour).
  754. the letter sign should generally be used
only where a single lower-case letter abbreviation
appears after the number in an uncombined unit.
this still applies when the abbreviation is followed
by an index or by punctuation, except that, where the
letter sign is used, a print stop should only be
retained if it marks the end of a sentence (see
714).
    examples: 5c (5 cents); 8 m
(8 miles); 13 ming; (13 square
metres); 55 g (55 grammes.); 89 kg
(89 kilogrammes).
         75. unit abbreviations
  however, in unit abbreviations consisting of
initials without stops, such as conventional informal
abbreviations, the letter sign is used according to the
usual rules for general abbreviations (section
71).
    example: 30 cc (30 cubic
centimetres)
  (see also the examples in 753.)
  755. when a unit is not attached to a
number, the same abbreviation should generally be used.
however, where a currency unit which normally
precedes the number is referred to without a
number, the numeral sign is necessary.
    examples: the l rose; the $ fell.
  756. where print abbreviates large sums
of money, braille should follow suit.
    examples: l5m (5 million pounds);
$3 bn (3 billion dollars).
  757. the degree sign is used only with a
number. otherwise "dg" must be substituted.
    examples: 13" (13 degrees);
21"Can (21 degrees celsius); dgFrom
(degrees fahrenheit).
  758. in combined units a dot 3 is used
to separate the individual unit symbols unless
an oblique stroke or superscript is
present at that point.
         75. unit abbreviations
    examples:
3 N'm (3 newton metres)
5 Nstming; (5 newtons per square metre)
8 more'sing-be (8 metre seconds to the power
    minus 2[
  759. the separation sign is not required
after unit abbreviations before following punctuation
unless they end with an index or degree sign. but
it is required before following punctuation after
prime and double prime.
    examples: 3 m; 5 mingbbBe 8"Be
13"C; 5@in10@*.
  7510. the greek letter mu for micro should be
coded with dot 2. (note: mathematics notation
uses dots 4-6 instead of dot 2.)
    example: ,mWill (microwatts).
  7511. where there is more than one number or
unit in print, braille should follow suit.
    examples: l30 to l40; 30 to 40 m;
1 kg 597 g.
  7512. contractions may generally be used in
unit abbreviations according to the normal rules.
    examples: 8 ins (8 inches); 1 in
(1 inch); 1 in. (1 inch); 5 mins (5
minutes); 11 st (11 stones); 11 st.
(11 stones).
  7513. a unit abbreviation which would precede
         75. unit abbreviations
the numeral sign may precede the letter sign also.
    examples: lx (x pounds); disity (y
dollars).
  7514. imperial currency should be brailled
according to present rules, and not according to those which were in force
when the currency was valid. braille should therefore seek
to follow print practice as far as possible.
    examples: l1 17s 6d; 12s
6; 2/6; 2/-.
             ::::::::::::



















          8. use of contractions
             81. general
  811. when a contraction is itself the subject
of discourse, it may be desirable that the letters or
word for which it stands should be partly or fully written
out.
    examples: the contraction for into should be
used; must is not contracted in mustard.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
      82. simple upper wordsigns
  821. simple upper wordsigns may be
preceded or followed by punctuation signs, and
may be preceded by the italic sign and by the
contractions to, into and by.
    example: "you have to go!"
  822. letters or contractions should not
directly adjoin these wordsigns.
    examples: childlike; likeness;
peoples; stiller; whichever; without.
  823. simple upper wordsigns should generally
be used before the apostrophe followed by d, ll,
re, s, t, ve.
    examples: can't, people's, th'll, you'd,
you're, you's, you've.
  they should not be used in rarer colloquial forms.
    examples: more'n, you'm.
      82. simple upper wordsigns
  they should not be used after the apostrophe.
    examples: d'you, t'have.
  824. these wordsigns may be used when joined
by the hyphen in compound words.
    examples: child-like; do-it-yourself.
  however, they may not be used before or after a
hyphen in a word divided at the braille line.
    examples: every- thing, further- more,
good- will, more- over, un- like, which-
ever.
  825. these contractions should generally be used
whatever the meaning of the word.
    examples: but and ben, can-can, gin-and-it, have a
go, very lights, so-and-so, watering-can, whisky-still, will
and testament, will-o'-the-wisp.
  however, in some cases they should be avoided.
    examples: as (roman coin); do, so
(musical notes).
  826. a simple upper wordsign should not be
used before a full stop or an interruptive dash
if there could be reasonable doubt in the context as
to whether the character representing it should be read as a
wordsign or as a letter of the alphabet.
    examples:
do. so. met have. like. but he never met that. more.
more. spoke to people. before he spoke to you.
tell me wh----.
      82. simple upper wordsigns

sequencing
  827. the words "and, for, of, the, with, a" should
generally follow one another without a space, even
when a sense break or natural pause is
present.
    examples:
he is with the officer of the watch.
the end of a perfect day.
he looked grim andofa sad disposition.
forof course ...
in and out of the room.
him we think of and love.
for and against.
the book i was looking for the other day.
he was thought ofwith respect.
  however, a space should be left between such words when
one of them is part of a hyphenated compound word.
    examples: of- and for-organisations;
uncalled-for and out of order.
  828. when any word in this group is preceded
by the single or double italic sign, it must be
preceded by a space.
    examples:
he was one of the joneses.
the correspondent of the times.
binyon's for the fallen.
     83. simple upper groupsigns
a chorus of for he's a jolly good fellow.
  but notice the following.
    example:
both now and for the next five years.
  however, if only the first word of such a group is
italicised, it may be written unspaced from the
following word.
    examples:
he was for the motion.
through and out of the tunnel.
  829. if a capital sign or double
capital sign intervenes within a continuous group
of the words "and, for, of, the, with, a", a space should
be left before such a sign.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
     83. simple upper groupsigns
  831. the contractions and, for, of,
the, with, ch, gh, sh, th, wh,
ed, er, ou, ow, st, ar should generally
be used wherever the letters they represent occur.
    examples: afforestation, arrow,
bacchanalia, deer, derelict, dough, edict,
fashion, ghost, need, office, outer, owner,
peddled, profound, roof, shower, smoothed, sofa,
south, southern, standard, towards, wander, wither.
  832. when in colloquial forms the
apostrophe is intentionally omitted in print,
     83. simple upper groupsigns
simple upper groupsigns should be used in the
following cases, but simple wordsigns and
shortforms must not be used.
    examples: hed, shed, wed, were, youre (for
he'd, she'd, etc.).
  833. the contraction for sh should not be used in
the exclamation demanding silence unless there is a
plurality of s's or h's.
    examples: sh! ssh! shhh!
  834. in ordinal numbers the contractions
st and th are used.
    examples: 1/, 4th.
  when a letter is followed by the ordinal termination
th, the th should be contracted and written
unspaced from the letter, even though contractions are not
normally used after the letter sign (see 554).
    example: nth.

ble and ing
  835. these groupsigns may not be used at
the beginning of a word. however, they may generally be
used in the middle or at the end of a word wherever the
letters they represent occur. they may not be used
after a hyphen in a hyphenated compound word, though
they may be used at the beginning of a braille line in a
divided word.
    examples: adorable, awn- ings (divided
          84. lower contractions
at the braille line), blemish, dinghy, distinguish,
em- m (divided at the braille line), gingham,
ingle, ingram, ingratitude, meringue, nobler,
over-ingratiating, problem, rabble, singe, singh,
skiing, ski-+, whistling.
  836. the contraction for ing should be used
whether the g is pronounced hard or soft.
    examples: cringing, ginger, nightingale,
singing.
  837. the contraction for ble may not generally
be used before the letters a or n.
    examples: pitchblende, tableau.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
          84. lower contractions
  841. any number of lower contractions and
punctuation signs may follow one another without
an intervening space, provided that the string
includes an upper sign and that all other rules
are observed.
    examples: queen-consort; "sudden!"; to come
in; "where are we goin'?"
  842. the presence of the italic sign,
capital sign or line sign does not affect
the use of lower signs.
    examples: by considering, to be, disen-
tangle, into disuse, was it enough?;
It Was A Lover And His Lass;
          84. lower contractions
When We were Very Young.
inddar enough--ar
  843. the contractions for be, con,
dis, en and in may not be used at the beginning
of a word before a hyphen occurring at the end of a braille
line. this even applies when they are in contact with a
letter of the alphabet or an upper contraction through a
preceding hyphen or dash.
    examples: .........'' it's so--in-
distinct. .................. well-be-
haved.

to, into, by
  844. these lower wordsigns should be written
unspaced from the word which follows, even when a sense
break or natural pause is present.
    examples:
by and by he went to school by bus.
it was divided into at least three parts.
his pay was not increased by as much as that.
by and large she stood by her decision.
into or out of the house.
she came by the shop yesterday.
it was referred to yesterday.
cows passed by from time to time.
this is something i shall have to go into tomorrow.
birds flew to and fro.
          84. lower contractions
  845. these contractions may be sequenced
to one another.
    examples:
he was referred to by name.
this needs looking into to find the cause.
  846. when one of these words is followed
by be, enough, were, his, in, was, the first
word in the group should be contracted.
    examples:
he wished to be consulted by his friends.
have we gone into enough detail?
what they swore by was tomato soup.
we fell to in the high street.
the rooms that i looked into were empty.
  847. these contractions may be used after open
quotes, open brackets and the dash. they may be
used before the numeral, letter and accent signs and before
or after the capital and italic signs.
    examples:
"to err is human."
up to 1984.
he treated us to @eclairs.
by default.
x into y does not go.
  848. these contractions must not be used as parts
of words.
    examples: bygone; intoxicant; towards.
          84. lower contractions
  849. they may not be used in the following
cases: before or after the hyphen or apostrophe;
before the ellipsis; before other punctuation.
    examples: well-to-do; to 'im; go
to ...; what is meant by "squaring the
circle"?
  8410. they should not be used before mathematical
signs.
    example: the temperature dropped from
ff2" to -3".
  8411. the two braille characters of the contraction for
into must be contiguous on the same braille line.

be, were, his, was
  8412. these wordsigns may be preceded by the
italic or capital sign. they may not be used
in conjunction with any other sign. (for the letter group
be see 8414-17.) the signs for were,
.his and was may not be used as parts of words.
    examples:
he was pleased.
as you were!
it may be.
he is devoted to his bicycle.
a would-be actor.
he came--his sister too.
it wasn't a werewolf.
          84. lower contractions
  8413. although the lower contractions be,
were, .his and was may not be used in conjunction with a
dash occurring in the same braille line, they may be
used if they are separated from the dash by the ending of a
braille line.
    examples: ............'' it was--
his choice. ..................... it was
--his choice.

be, con, dis, com
  8414. the contractions for be, con and
dis may be used at the beginning of a word or after
a hyphen in a hyphenated compound word, provided
the letters they represent constitute a syllable.
    examples: become; unbecoming; connect;
disconnect; distinct; indistinct; better; conch;
disc; dishevelled; self-discipline.
  8415. be, con and dis may not be
contracted before or after the apostrophe, or before the
hyphen.
    examples: be'ave, dis'eartened;
be-all, con-man.
  8416. the contractions for be, con,
dis and com, where permissible in a complete
word, should be used in a recognised abbreviation of
that word.
    examples: comp. werecomposition), conj.
          84. lower contractions
(conjunction), conn. (connecticut), cont.
(continued), dist. (district).
  but where the letters forming the contraction are not followed
by the next letter of the complete word, the contraction may
not be used.
    examples: mod cons; pros and cons.
  8417. the contractions for be, con,
dis, com may only be used at the beginning
of a braille line in a divided word when they are
followed by other characters in the word, provided they would
have been permissible under rules 8414 and
8418 if the runover had constituted a
complete word.
    examples: according- complish; aphro- disiac;
eliza- bethan; ill- conceived; in- distinct; re-
concile; self- discipline; un- believer; wel-
come; well- beloved. but: ba- con; ben- dis;
would- be.
  8418. the contraction for com may be used
at the beginning of a word, but it need not form a
syllable.
    examples: coma; comb; come; comfort;
by comparison; to come.
  but it must not be used when the letters co are added
to a complete word to give a word of cognate
meaning.
    examples: comates; comingle.
          84. lower contractions
  8419. the contraction for com must not be used
in contact with the apostrophe, hyphen or dash.
    examples: com'st; in-comer;
most--comely.
  but com may be contracted if separated from the
dash by the ending of a braille line.
    examples: .........'' don't be--
complacent. ...............'' don't be
--complacent.

enough, en, in, in
  8420. the lower contractions for en and in
should generally be used wherever the letters they represent
occur.
    examples: benenden, engine, feminine,
linen, peninsula.
  8421. the contraction for en may not be used
when the letters form a word or an element of a
hyphenated compound word.
    examples: aix-en-provence; chou
en-lai; en route; en saga.
  8422. the signs which represent the words enough
and in may generally be used whenever these words occur.
but they may only be used in conjunction with
punctuation if the string includes a letter of the
alphabet or an upper contraction.

          84. lower contractions
    examples:
he had enough--more than enough.
they stayed with their in-laws.
"teach-in" was the phrase he used.
enough's as good as a feast.

ea and double letters
  8423. the contractions for ea, bb, cc,
dd, ff and gg may only be used when these
letters occur between letters or contractions in the same
word written in one braille line. they must not begin or
end a braille line. they may be used before the accent
sign.
    examples: abb`e, adds, beat, dagger,
seas; but: add, easy, moth- eaten, pea-
nut, sea.
  8424. the contraction for ea and the double letter
contractions should not be used before or after the
apostrophe or hyphen.
    examples: cliff's, 'ead, egg-shell,
robb'd, sea'orse.

ea
  8425. in general the ea contraction should be
used whenever ea occurs within a word.
    examples: acreage, areas, changeability,
create, creativity, delineate, european,
        85. composite wordsigns
foreseeably, idealistic, ideas, laureate,
likeable, lineage, lineal, malleable, mileage,
miscreant, nauseating, oceanic, pageant,
peaceable, permeable, permeate, rateable, reality,
roseate, seas.
  8426. when words beginning or ending with ea
form parts of unhyphenated compound words, the ea should
be contracted, provided it is medial.
    examples: motheaten, northeast, seaman,
speakeasy, spreadeagle, teatime.
  8427. the contraction for ea should not be used
when the letters belong to two distinct syllables and the a
does not begin a suffix, or when the form of a
root word would be excessively distorted.
    examples: aurora borealis,
beatific, genealogy, habeas corpus,
hanseatic, neapolitan, orgeat,
pancreas, pineapple.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
        85. composite wordsigns
  851. the contraction for word should be used
wherever the letters it represents occur.
    examples: foreword, sword, wordiness,
wordsworth.
  however, the contractions for upon, these, those and
whose should only be used where they retain their meanings
as whole words.
        85. composite wordsigns
    examples: hereupon, whereupon, ^whsoever; but:
coupon, dupont, hypotheses, thoseby.
  852. the following contractions should generally be
used wherever the letters they represent occur: cannot,
had, many, spirit, world, their.
    examples: dispirited, hadn't, germany,
romany, theirs, worldly.

dot 5 contractions
  853. in general the following dot 5
contractions should be used wherever the letters they
represent occur: day, father, know, lord, mother, question,
right, work, young, character, through, ought.
    examples: acknowledge, aright, bought,
characterise, characteristic, doughty, drought, fatherly, fought,
lordly, midday, playwright, questionnaire, righteous,
smother, throughout, workshop, younger.
  854. the contraction for ever may only be
used when the stress is on the first e and the letter
group is not preceded by an e or i.
    examples: lever, fever, never, sever,
several; but: believer, persevere, reverberate,
revere, severe, severity.
  855. the contraction for here may only be
used when the letters it represents are pronounced as
one syllable with the h aspirated.
    examples: adhere, hereto, herewith; but:
        85. composite wordsigns
heresy, sphere.
  856. the contraction for name may only be
used when the letters it represents are pronounced as
one syllable.
    examples: namely, namesake, unnamed; but:
enamel, ornament, unamended.
  857. the contraction for one should in general
only be used when all three letters it represents
are pronounced as one syllable.
    examples: alone, bone, done, gone,
lonely, stone, telephone; but: anemone,
bayonet, colonel, phonetic, soonest.
  however, note the following exceptions.
    examples: honest, honey, monetary,
money, phoney.
  858. the contraction for part should generally be
used wherever the letters it represents occur.
    examples: apartheid, parterre, partial,
particular, partook, repartee, spartan.
  however, the th or the contractions should be
used in preference in words where th is pronounced
as a single sound.
    examples: parthian, parthenon.
  859. the contraction for some should be used
wherever the letters it represents form a definite
syllable of the basic word.
    examples: chromosome, handsome, handsomer,
       86. composite groupsigns
handsomest; but: blossomed, gasometer,
ransomed, somersault.
  8510. the contraction for time should only be
used when the letters it represents are pronounced as
the word "time".
    examples: maritime, sometimes, timer, times,
timex; but: centime, centimetre, mortimer.
  8511. the contraction for under should be used
except when the letters it represents are immediately
preceded by the vowels a or o.
    examples: blunder, funder, thunder, undertake;
but: bounder, launder, maunder.
  in addition it should not be used when only the un
is a prefix.
    example: underived.
  8512. the contraction for there may only be
used in words of which the word "there" forms a component
part.
    examples: thereabouts, thereafter, therefrom; but:
ethereal, smithereens.
  8513. the contraction for where should generally be
used wherever the letters it represents occur.
    examples: nowhere, whereupon; but: where'er,
wherever.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
       86. composite groupsigns
  861. contractions formed with dots 4-6,
       86. composite groupsigns
5-6 and 6 should generally be used wherever the letters they
represent occur except at the beginning of a word.
    examples:
blessing, cancel, dancer, enhanced, mountain,
    persuasion, sound, wounded.
bastion, cement, guinness, incongruous, infinity,
    laity, mongoose, sinfulness, sponge, thence.
creation, rationally, really, rotation, squally.
  862. these contractions may not follow the
apostrophe.
    examples: bo'ness; grey'ound
(greyhound); 'ound (hound); 'tion!
(attention).
  863. these contractions may generally be used
after the hyphen where a word has been divided between
two braille lines.
  however, in a hyphenated word appearing wholly
on one print line they must not be used after the
hyphen. this even applies when a midline hyphen
in print happens to occur at the end of the line in
braille.
    examples: channel-less, cre-ation,
one-ness, refer-ence.
  864. the contraction for ong should be used
whether the g is pronounced hard or soft.
    examples: longevity, mongrel, prong,
sponge, uncongenial.
            87. shortforms
  865. the contraction for ness should not be used
in feminine endings.
    examples: baroness, chieftainess,
citizeness, governess, lioness,
marchioness.
  866. the contraction for ity should not be used
in words like the following.
    examples: fruity, hoity-toity,
rabbity.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            87. shortforms
  871. shortforms can in general be used wherever
they occur as whole words, whatever their meaning.
    examples: according (agreeing, granting); letter
(epistle, one who lets, etc.); must
(obligation, mould, new wine, etc.); quick
(alive, fast).
  872. they may be preceded and followed
by additions provided there is no interference with
spelling, the basic word retains its original
meaning, and the resultant word could not be mistaken for
another word.
    examples: children's, get-together, goodies,
greatest, lettered; but: blinded, declaration, mustard,
shoulder.
  873. shortforms composed of the first letters of a
word (e.g. after, blind, friend) may not be used before a
            87. shortforms
vowel when the resulting combination of letters could be
mistakenly pronounced as a word.
    examples: aftereffects, befriended,
blinding; but: blindfold.
  874. shortforms may not be divided, but,
if occurring at the end of a braille line, may be
joined by a hyphen to additions on the following line.
    example: ..................' immediate-
ly.
  they may also be used at the beginning of a braille
line in a divided word.
    example: ..................' pre-
conceived.
  875. it is sometimes advisable for names,
words or pronounceable letter-groups, when they could be
confused with shortforms in braille, to be preceded by the
letter sign.
    examples: al-azar; al capone; al
fayyum; al fresco; min of ag and fish;
hm.
  876. when confusion would occur in proper names
containing letters which make up shortforms but do not stand for
such, these names should be preceded by the letter sign and no
contraction should be used within a complete name.
    examples: afyon; but: schneider.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,

            88. preference
            88. preference
  881. preference should normally be given
to contractions which cause a word to occupy fewer
cells, unless this would result in serious
distortion.
    examples: advanced, aright, bastion,
dancer, happiness, meander, named, timer, vengeance,
wither; but: tableau.
  882. the contractions for and, for,
of, the, with should be used in preference
to other contractions, provided their use does not
waste space.
    examples: bathed, effort, offer, other,
theatre, then; but: thence.
  883. simple upper groupsigns should be
used in preference to simple lower groupsigns,
provided their use does not waste space.
    examples: afford, cobbler, coffee, fear,
gabbled, nearly, nuclear, rabble, saccharine,
wedding; but: distinct, disturbed.
  however, in some unhyphenated compound words, or
words beginning with a prefix, it is preferable to use
a lower groupsign instead of an upper, so as
to avoid bridging.
    examples: bedraggled, berated, egghead,
flearidden, tearoom.
  884. simple groupsigns should generally be
             89. bridging
preferred to composite contractions, provided their
use does not waste space.
    examples: adherent, adherer, cohered,
commenced, component, congo, congratulate, congruity
(as contrasted with incongruity), effulgent,
experienced, fenced, gathered, haddock, heredity,
influenceable, poisoned, prisoner, shadow,
silencer, slithered, spencer, telephoned,
toner, weathered.
  however, if the form of the word would otherwise be
distorted, composite contractions should be used.
    examples: coney, limbless, midday,
stronghold, whereas.
  885. contractions should not be used which would
upset the usual pronunciation of words.
    examples: asthma not asthma, creation not
creation, dishevelled not dishevelled, gingham not
gingham, isthmus not isthmus, posthumous not
posthumous.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
             89. bridging
prefixes
  891. when a prefix is added to an english
word to form another word of the same part of speech andwitha
meaning closely related to that of the original word,
a contraction should not be used to bridge the prefix
and the remainder of the word.
             89. bridging
    examples: comate, denationalise,
disulphide, inessential, mishear, misterm,
predestine, predominate, react, readmit,
redouble, sublet.
  892. in cases not covered by 891 such
bridging contractions may be used.
    examples: deduce, denominator, denote,
derail, derange, edict, mistake, predicament,
prediction, prerogative, profile, profound,
profusion, renew.
  893. except in the case of the contraction for
ea it is usually not advisable to take
advantage of a prefix in order to use a
contraction which could not have been used in the original
word.
    examples: disingenuous,
electroencephalogram, unblemished,
unfulfilled, unlessoned; but: disease,
uneatable.

suffixes
  894. generally speaking, a contraction may
bridge a word and its suffix.
    examples: boredom, dukedom, freedom,
orangery, savagery.
  however, bridging contractions should be avoided in
certain cases.
             89. bridging
    examples: biscuity, orangeade,
knighthood.

compound words
  895. contractions should not be used to bridge
the elements of compound words.
    examples: bottleneck, headdress,
hideaway, indiarubber, insofar, kettledrum,
longhand, painstaking, stateroom.
  896. the contractions for ch, gh, sh,
th, wh should not be used when the h is
aspirated at the beginning of a clearly marked
syllable.
    examples: carthorse, cowherd, egghead,
grasshopper, stronghold, sweetheart.

diphthongs
  897. the contractions for ea, ed, en,
er should not be used when the e or a forms part of the
diphthongs ae or oe, whether printed as such
or not.
    examples: diaeresis, encyclopaedia,
judaean, liliaceae, maenad,
phoenicians, phoenix.
  898. these contractions should not be used after a
or o in welsh names because of the distinctive
pronunciation of ae and oe in welsh.
           810. english names
    examples: betws-y-coed, blaenau
ffestiniog, caernarvon.
  899. these contractions should not be used when the
letters ae, oe or ue represent a, o or
u with umlaut.
    examples: baedeker, goering,
gruenfeld, schoenberg.
  however, when this is not the case, these contractions
may be used.
    examples: bauer, feuerbach, moeran.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
           810. english names
  8101. the general rules on the use of
contractions apply. care should be exercised not
to use contractions which would contribute to the
mispronunciation of names.
  8102. simple upper wordsigns may be
used for proper names (but see 826).
    examples: thomas more, will shakespeare,
saint-just, robert child, william grant still.
  8103. simple groupsigns should generally be
used in english proper names, subject
to 8101.
    examples: anthony, castlereagh, chatham,
combes, conrad, cosham, langham, langholm,
southend, thelma.
  (for other examples see appendix iii.)
        811. foreign words and names
  8104. the contractions for cc and ch must not
be used in names where mac or mc forms a prefix
meaning "son of".
    examples: mccall, macconnachie,
machattie, mchugh.
  8105. the contraction for con should not be used
in names having the "o'" prefix.
    examples: o'connor, o'connell.
  8106. composite contractions may be used
as the whole or part of english proper names,
subject to 8101.
    examples: brighton, day, dolittle, good,
goodge street, goodwin, greatorex, haddon
(see 884), hadley, little, llwood, lord,
mistress quickly, much wenlock, saunders,
somerset, wally, young.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
        811. foreign words and names
  8111. foreign words and phrases,
sentences, titles, names, etc., may generally be
contracted, whether or not italicised or placed
in quotes. the general rules on the use of
contractions apply. care should be exercised not
to use contractions which would contribute to the
mispronunciation of words.
    examples: andreas; antigone;
antinous; boccherini; bundestag; charleroi;
          812. early english
dachshund; d@el@egation; diaghilev; @edition;
ex parte; gasthof; goethe; leningrad;
liebestod; llandaff; montreal; nation
(french); reale; reichstag; stadtholder;
"table d'h@ote"; t@el@evision; villeneuve;
wenceslas.
  8112. extended pieces of foreign text
(e.g. a whole paragraph) are, however, better
left entirely uncontracted.
  8113. contractions are not used in text
employing the special signs for accented letters
(appendix ii).
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
          812. early english
  8121. in general, passages in english
written after about 1300 may be contracted.
however, the following list demonstrates the need for
extreme care.
    examples: acrosse (not acre); againe
(not age); bothe (both); daynty (dainty);
dolefull (doleful); ffirst (not ffirst); fful
(full); forthe (forth, to avoid confusion with the words
"for the"); gentillesse; gentlenes (gentleness);
ha.e (not hadde); heathenesse; hmfe (not
himselfe); loue (love); monethe (month);
onely (only); ouer (over); sones (sons);
soone (not soone); suche (not sche, which is a
      813. stammered and slurred words
variant spelling of "she"); swolewith
(swallows); worlde; yoonge (not yoonge); youre
(to avoid confusion with youre, which is a variant
spelling of "ire").
  8122. the shortform "also" ("also") should not
be used in passages where it might be read as a
variant spelling of "all".
  8123. where the special old english letters
are used (see appendix ic), and in
passages written before about 1300, permissible
contractions are greatly restricted.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
        813. stammered, lisped and
              slurred words
  8131. a hyphen should be used in braille
to divide stammered syllables regardless of whether
print uses a hyphen or a dash. the letterggs) or
contraction preceding and following the hyphen should be
identical.
    examples: but-but-because, go-ghost,
gr-ground, lea-leave, more-must, this-these,
will-what, which-what, which-where.
  8132. stammered words should not be preceded by the
letter sign and should not be divided at the braille line
unless at least three stammered syllables appear
on the first line.
  8133. for the sake of clarity simple
            814. word endings
wordsigns should be avoided in stammered words.
    examples: can-can, can-can't, go-go,
this-this, will-was, will-will.
  8134. if print does not separate the
stammered or slurred letters of a word, a hyphen should
not be inserted in braille.
    examples: cooooountry, gggood,
lllittle, loooong, sisterrrr.
  8135. in transcribing lisped or
slurred words the th contraction should be used, but not
the.
    examples: thenotaph (cenotaph), sisther
(sister), thuthpenthe (suspense).
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            814. word endings
  8141. word endings, which occur frequently in
dictionaries and grammar books, and also elsewhere,
are generally prefixed in print by a hyphen or
swung dash, for which a hyphen should normally be used
in braille.
  8142. the following contractions may not be
used at the beginning of a word ending: ble, ing,
ea, the double letter contractions, contractions beginning
with dots 4-6, 5-6 or 6, and all simple
wordsigns; but subsidiary contractions may be
used.
    examples: comational, combled, comccio,
            814. word endings
comean, comence, coming, comount.
  8143. the contractions for be, con,
dis, com may only be used at the beginning
of a word ending under the same conditions as at the
beginning of a runover in a divided word (see
8417); in addition com cannot be contracted after
a hyphen (see 8419).
  8144. where the italicised ending of a word
stands alone and is preceded by a hyphen, the
italic sign should follow the hyphen.
    example: "words ending with com.ing."
  the letter sign can often be substituted for the combination
of hyphen and italic sign.
    example: "words ending with ing."
  8145. all word endings must contain an upper
sign. the italic sign does not count as an
upper sign for this purpose.
             ::::::::::::











         9. layout and book work
             91. general
  911. the paragraphs of section 9 are
intended to provide guidance in matters of
layout. some diversity will always exist where formatting
procedures are concerned.
  912. it may be advisable to contact one of the
principal publishers of braille before tackling
transcriptions which involve particularly
complicated layout procedures, e.g. tables,
genealogies, concrete poetry, elaborate
notes.
  913. in interline transcriptions it may
be inadvisable to use blank lines. thus certain
procedures outlined below may have to be modified.
  914. the page information line, which should appear
at the top of each braille page, should contain, if
at all possible, all of the following four
items: the print page number (which should occupy the
first cells of the line); the lowest ranking meaningful
title, abbreviated as necessary, which may be that of the
book itself, or of a section of it; the lowest ranking
meaningful divisional number or number group;
and the braille page number (which should occupy the last
cells of the line). it should aim to be as informative
as the space available permits. the first three
             91. general
items of information should relate to the material
appearing on the last line of the braille page in question,
and if this last line contains only the print page
turn (see 915), it is the new print
page number which should be shown on the information line.
the first item should consist of a single number, and not a
range. the order of the second and third items will
depend on whether the number or number group is
that of the title in question, or whether it is
subordinate to it. a title page does not
require a page information line, and there are other
situations where not all four items would be
appropriate.
  915. where print page turns are shown, the
print page indicator should be followed
(unspaced) by the new print page number, and this
combination, which should be centred on a line alone, may
appear on any line of a page except the page
information line.
  916. several types of heading are
available in braille: (1) centred heading; (2)
cell 1 side heading, preceded by a blank
line, centred heading or page information line, and
followed by a cell 3 paragraph; (3) cell
3 side heading followed by a cell 3
paragraph; (4) cell 3 side heading
followed by a full stop, a short dash and the
             91. general
continuation of the text. italicised versions of
types (2), (3) and (4) are also available;
though when type (4) is italicised, the short
dash is not required in braille unless it is used in
print. these types of heading may be used
to indicate diminishing levels of importance, the
italicised version of a heading usually indicating a
higher level of importance than the
unitalicised version.
  917. where print uses black spots,
dashes, hyphens, squares, bars or stars before the
items in a series of points each starting on a
new line, braille should omit the print symbols and
begin each point in cell 5 with runovers in
cell 1.
  918. when signs are borrowed from a
specialist code or have to be invented, they should be
listed on a special signs page at the
beginning of each volume, unless the volume
contains only prefatory or concluding matter in
which the special signs do not occur. this page should
refer to the whole book and therefore be the same in
each volume. however, if the number of signs from
a specialist code is sufficiently large,
reference should rather be made to the relevant
codebook.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            92. book work
            92. book work
  921. in a braille transcription consisting of
two or more volumes, the first volume, besides
containing the regular contents page for the volume
itself, should also include a complete contents list
covering the whole work, giving print and, as far as
possible, braille page references. such a complete
contents list is not necessary if the book is divided
into chapters or sections which have numbers, but no
titles. if the book is in only one volume,
there will of course be only one contents list, which should
include both print and braille page references. the
absence of a contents page in print is not a
sufficient reason for not having one in braille.
  922. all dust jacket material from the
print edition of a book should normally be
reproduced in the braille transcription.
  923. the international standard book number of
each book transcribed into braille should appear in the
braille edition.
  924. on the outer cover of each braille
volume, both in braille and (on the spine, where
possible) in print, there should be a clear indication
of the following: the author (normally); the title
of the work (in abbreviated form, where necessary); the braille
volume number; and the total number of volumes
in the work.
          93. correspondence
  925. in the braille edition of all
alphabetically arranged reference works the first and
last headings of material in each volume should be
indicated in braille on the outer cover of that
volume.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
          93. correspondence
  931. the print layout of letters should be
followed whenever practicable. 932 may be
adopted where no print model is available.
  932. the lines of the address at the head of a
letter should all begin in the same cell and the longest
line should end in the last cell of the braille line. when
the recipient's name and address is written above
the salutation, each line should start in cell 1.
after a blank line, the salutation should begin in
cell 1. paragraphs within the letter should start in
cell 3. after a blank line, the valediction should
begin in cell 1. the signature and/or
subscript, which may be divided onto more than
one line, should follow in cell 1. punctuation
should not be added at line ends when there is none in
print.
  933. if the valediction and/or name and
address follow the letter after a short dash in
print, the same arrangement may be used in braille.
  934. the address, date, telephone
             94. notes
number, salutation and signature must not be
separated by the turn of the braille page from at least
one line (or part of a line) of the text of the letter. this
may necessitate leaving several lines blank
at the bottom of a page.
  935. where a letter is printed in italics,
these are often not necessary in braille. when quotation marks
or italics are required, they should be opened before
each braille line of address, date, valediction,
etc.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
             94. notes
  941. notes may be dealt with in a number
of ways, depending on their character, length and
frequency, and the context in which they occur. the
guidelines given below might be modified for
notes attached to tables and diagrams, or
occurring in magazines and short documents.
  942. within text the asterisk should be used
to indicate a note. if there are two kinds of
note, the dagger may also be used. the note
number, if required, should follow the asterisk
or dagger without a space. when print gives each
note in a work a unique number, braille should
reproduce print's numbering. (see also
724.)
  943. only brief unnumbered
             94. notes
referential notes may be placed within the text
in square brackets, and such notes do not
require reference symbols as provided in
942.
  944. notes may appear at the ends of
paragraphs to which they refer, provided that they are
marked off sufficiently clearly from surrounding
text by means of indentation, blank lines or some
other device.
  945. notes should never appear at the foot
of the page in braille, as they quite commonly do in print.
they may be gathered together at the ends of chapters
or articles within a volume, but only if this
arrangement is adopted in print. if not lengthy
or numerous, they may appear on separate
notes sheets at the ends of the volumes which contain
the text to which they relate. but substantial
bodies of notes are best placed in separate
volumes or pamphlets, provided that any such
volume or pamphlet contains at least thirty
sheets. in order to achieve this minimum, other
ancillary material, such as appendices,
bibliography and index, should, if necessary, be
included with the notes.
  946. if the note is indented (see
944), the note number should begin in cell
5; otherwise in cell 1. the page and line
           95. paragraphs
references should form a string and should follow the note
number after a blank space. the text of the note
should follow the reference. the margin for runovers should
be set 2 cells deeper than the note number,
and internal paragraphs should begin 2 cells
further in than this margin.
    example:
13 p8921 text of note running over to
  next line.
    new paragraph within note running over to
  next line.
  947. there are, however, circumstances in which
notes may be brailled as normal paragraphs,
e.g. when they are printed as such in normal
type, as at the end of chapters or articles;
or when they are keyed to a reference point (such as
a verse line number) other than braille page and
line numbers; or when they appear in a volume
or pamphlet which contains no text; or when they
are appended to a table or diagram.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
           95. paragraphs
  951. normally, a new paragraph in braille
should begin in cell 3 of a new line, however shown
in print.
  only where space is at a premium should
three blank spaces within a braille line be used
             96. plays
to indicate a new paragraph.
  952. where paragraphs are introduced by a
number or letter, the new line cell 3 method
must be used. a full stop should be inserted in braille
after the number or letter where print has no
punctuation. in the case of lettered paragraphs the
letter sign should be used even when there is a full
stop.
  953. hanging paragraphs in braille should begin
in cell 1 and runovers should be in cell 5. a
new paragraph within a hanging paragraph should
begin in cell 7.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
             96. plays
  961. the names of speakers (even if
abbreviated) should be italicised, both at the
beginning of speeches and (if printed in special
type, for example in capitals) in stage
directions also, but not where they occur in the text
of the dialogue.
  962. stage directions, even when
italicised in print, should not be italicised in
braille, but they should be enclosed in square
brackets. this applies also to descriptions at
the beginning or end of a scene. the square bracket
should be reopened for each new paragraph.
  963. when a stage direction is set out
             96. plays
on a line or lines alone in print, it should start
in cell 3 of a new line. when the dialogue is
resumed a new line should be taken starting in cell
3.
  964. each speech, whether in prose or
verse drama, should begin with the speaker's name in
cell 3 of a new line. print punctuation should be
retained after the speaker's name, but in the absence of
any punctuation a full stop should be added in
braille. the first word of dialogue or stage
direction should follow in the same line after one
blank space.
  965. each speech in prose or in verse
brailled using the line sign method should be treated as
a paragraph.
  966. a change from prose to verse, or
vice versa, within a speech in a play is
normally marked by a new paragraph.
  967. where a direction such as "sings" ends
the first line of a song, it should be written within
square brackets immediately before the words to be
sung.
  968. if two speakers share a verse
line, this should be indicated by leaving 3 blank
cells after the name of the second speaker.
    example:
  len. good morrow, noble sir!
             97. poetry
  macb. good morrow, both!
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
             97. poetry
line-by-line method
  971. it is recommended that this method should
normally be used for poetry.
  972. each new stanza or paragraph
(except the first) may be preceded by a blank
line, with its first line beginning in cell 1;
alternatively, each stanza or paragraph
may start in cell 3 of a new line.
subsequent lines of poetry should begin on a
new braille line in cell 1. if the verse line
is too long for one braille line, the runover should
begin in cell 5.
  973. when the second part of a verse line
is written on a separate line in print to mark
the beginning of a new paragraph, this second part
should begin in cell 11 of a new line in braille.
runovers of either part of the line should begin in cell
5.

facsimile method
  974. this method is a modification of the
line-by-line method: blank lines are left
between stanzas as in print; print indentation is
copied; each line, including the first line of a
             97. poetry
stanza, begins in cell 1 unless indented in
print.
  975. more than one space may be left between
words in order to convey the shape of the poem.
  976. lines which are too long to fit on a
single braille line have the break marked by an unspaced
facsimile hyphen (dot 5), which follows the
normal hyphen when a word has to be divided. the
runover begins two cells in from the start of the
verse line.
  977. capitals may be indicated.
contractions may be restricted if the component
letters are a mixture of upper case and lower
case.

line sign method
  978. this method is only suitable where the
print layout is reasonably straightforward.
special care needs to be taken, using this
method, when easy access to line numbering is
required.
  979. poetry may be written continuously
with the line sign (see 56) placed at the end of
each verse line. each stanza should begin in cell
3 of a new line. the line sign should occur at the
end of each stanza except the last. it should not
appear at the end of a poem or verse extract.
             97. poetry
  9710. when it ends a line of verse, a
note reference should precede the line sign with a
space between. this combination may begin a braille line.
  9711. when a line of asterisks occurs within
verse, the previous braille line should end with a line
sign. however, it is often more convenient
to represent an omission in verse by an
ellipsis spaced from line signs on either side.
  9712. when the second part of a verse line
is written on a separate line in print to mark
the beginning of a new paragraph, no line sign
should be brailled at the end of the first part, and the second
part should begin in cell 3 of a new line.
  9713. when print shows that an extract
begins in the middle of a verse line, either by the use
of an initial small letter or by starting it in the
middle of the print line, no indication of this need be
given in braille.
  9714. where, in print, verse is not set out
line by line but use is made of a vertical or
oblique stroke, a short dash, or an
initial capital letter to indicate the beginnings of
verse lines, the line sign with normal spacing
should be used in braille. no new line need be taken
in braille at the beginning of the verse extract if
print does not take a new line.
  9715. in addition to indicating the ends of
         98. quoted passages
verse lines, the line sign may be used to mark the
ends of prose lines in epitaphs,
inscriptions, facsimile title pages, etc.
it is also used in certain methods of setting out the
scriptures.

prose and verse
  9716. where prose and verse alternate,
blank lines and/or indentation may be necessary
to differentiate between them when the line-by-line or
facsimile method is employed.
  9717. whatever method is used, the
resumption of the main text (prose or verse)
after an extract or quotation should be in the first or
third cell of a new line as indicated in print.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
         98. quoted passages
  981. quoted matter shown in print
by change of type, change of margin, or by the
leaving of a blank line before and after, may be handled
in one of two ways. method (a) is generally
preferred.
    (a) the extract, prose or poetry,
may be set out without inserted quotation signs but
should then be marked off from surrounding text by a
device such as indenting the margin, using blank
lines, or adding 12 centred commas. when the
           99. word division
extract as a whole is indented in braille, any
paragraph within it (including the first) should begin two
cells deeper than the indented margin.
    (b) the extract may be enclosed within the
one-cell quotation signs, regardless of whether
there are inverted commas in print.
  in each case the extract, and the resumption of the
normal text, should begin in the first or third
cell of a new braille line according to whether or not a
paragraph is intended in print.
  982. when quoted notices, newspaper
headlines, etc., are centred in braille, they should be
enclosed within quotation marks, but generally they need
not be italicised.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
           99. word division
  991. in general, braille should observe the
same standards in word division as are recommended
for print. in particular words should not be divided in
the middle of a syllable.
  992. it should be noted that it is often not
worth dividing near the beginning of a word,
especially after the first braille character.
  993. in general words should not be divided in
the middle of a letter group which would otherwise be
contracted.
  994. when a compound word which is normally
           99. word division
hyphenated is divided at the end of the line in
print, braille should retain the hyphen even in the
middle of a line.
             ::::::::::::

























              appendix i
          some foreign alphabets
  further information on the following alphabets, as
well as on others not included here, can be obtained
if required from the braille authority of the united
kingdom.

              (a) greek
for a alpha
forb beta
forg gamma
ford delta
fore epsilon
forz zeta
forwh eta
forth theta
fori iota
fork kappa
forl lambda
form mu
forn nu
forx xi
foro omicron
forp pi
forr rho
fors sigma
         i. alphabets. (b)
fort tau
foru upsilon
forf phi
for and chi
fory psi
forw omega

forin iota subscript (small print iota
    appearing under a letter; follows the letter in braille)
forh rough breathing (print single opening quote,
    appearing over a small letter or before a
    capital letter; follows rho but precedes
    all other letters or diphthongs in braille)
for' mark of elision (print single closing quote;
    either at the end of a word and followed by a
    space, or at the beginning of a word and
    preceded by a space)

  all other accents or diacritics are generally
ignored.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
             (b) hebrew
  text using the hebrew alphabet is normally
printed to be read from right to left. the characters should always
be so transcribed that they are read from left to right
in braille.
  in braille, all vowels follow the letters under or
         i. alphabets. (b)
above which they appear in print.
  [in the following, @h is h with a dot beneath;
`e is e acute.]
               consonants
for a alef
forv vet
forg gimmel
ford dalet
forh h`e
forw vav
forz zayin
forx @het
fort tet
forj yod
forch @haf
forl lamed
form mem
forn nun
fors same@h
fored ayin
forf f`e
for the tsade
forq qaf, kof
forr resh
forsh shin
forth tav

         i. alphabets. (c)
              accented letters
forb bet
fork kaf
forp p`e
forwh sin
       vowels and pronunciation aids
forc pata@h
for: @hataf-pata@h
forst tsere
fore segol
foren @hataf-segol
fori @hiriq maleh
forin @hiriq @haser
foro @holom maleh
forow @holom @haser
forgh qamats
forar @hataf-qamats
foru qubbuts
foring shuruq
for' sh'va
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
            (c) old english
for a a
forb b
forc c
ford d
fore e
         i. alphabets. (c)
forf f
forg g forof yogh
forh h
fori i
forl l
form m
forn n
foro o
forp p
forr r
fors s
fort t
forst thorn
foring eth (crossed d)
foru u
forw w
for the wen
fory y
for and "and" sign

forch long a
forgh long e
forsh long i
forth long o
forwh long u
forwith long y
fored e with hook (ash)
         i. alphabets. (d)
forer o with hook
forar c with dot above
forou g with dot above

  if a diphthong is to be marked long, both of
its letters should use long vowel signs.
  a dot which is not positioned as a normal full
stop should be represented by dot 3.
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
             (d) russian
for a ah
forb beh
forw veh
forg geh
ford deh
fore yeh forch yo
forj zheh
forz zeh
fori ee
for and ee (short)
fork kah
forl el
form em
forn en
foro oh
forp peh
forr err
         i. alphabets. (e)
fors ess
fort teh
foru ooh
forf eff
forh khah
forc tseh
forq cheh
forwh shah
forx shchah
forof hard sign
for the yery
forwith soft sign
forow eh
forou yoo
fored yah
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
              (e) welsh
for a a
forb b
forc c
forch ch
ford d
for the dd
fore e
forv f
forf ff
forg g
         i. alphabets. (e)
foring ng
forh h
fori i
forj j
forl l
forfor ll
form m
forn n
foro o
forp p
forgh ph
forr r
fork rh
fors s
fort t
forth th
foru u
forw w
fory y

for@ circumflex
for^ diaeresis
for. acute
  a list of contractions used in welsh braille is
available from the braille authority of the united
kingdom.
             ::::::::::::


             appendix ii
      signs used in some foreign codes
  further information on the following languages, as
well as on others not included here, can be obtained
if required from the braille authority of the united
kingdom.
              (a) french
  for and c cedilla
  forfor e acute
  forof a grave
  for the e grave
  forwith u grave
  forch a circumflex
  forgh e circumflex
  forsh i circumflex
  forth o circumflex
  forwh u circumflex
  fored e with diaeresis
  forer i with diaeresis
  forou u with diaeresis
  forow oe diphthong
  forar ae diphthong
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
              (b) german
  for the sz
  forou u umlaut
        ii. foreign codes. (d)
  forow o umlaut
  forar a umlaut
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
             (c) italian
  circumflex accents are only occasionally
needed in modern works.
  forof a grave
  for the e grave
  forwith u grave
  forch a circumflex
  forgh e circumflex
  forsh i circumflex
  forth o circumflex
  forwh u circumflex
  forst i grave
  foring o grave
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
             (d) spanish
  forof a acute
  for the e acute
  forwith u acute
  forer n with tilde
  forou u with diaeresis
  forst i acute
  foring o acute
             ::::::::::::



             appendix iii
            guide to contracting
  no alteration should be made to print for the purpose
of conforming with the contractions authorised in the list
below. where print uses permissible alternatives
in spelling, accentuation, hyphenation or spacing,
these should be followed. help with many words not included
in this list can be obtained by reference to the rules:
see especially 88 (preference), 89
(bridging), 810 (english names), and 811
(foreign words and names).
             ,,,,,,,,,,,,
abalone adhered aforementioned
abb`e adherence aforesaid
about (french) ad nauseam aftereffects
abface advanced aftermath
abovementioned aedile afs
absinthe aegean agreeable
accordingly aeneas ahimsa
acetone aerial ainger
achaean aeroflot ain't
achiever aerofoil airedale
acreage aertex aix-en-
acrosses aesthetic provence
adeney afford al capone
adhere affrighted aleatory
         iii. guide to contracting
alessandro apartheid bandog
al fine appledore banffshire
alloway aqueduct barbarossa
almoner arboreal bargoed
almshouse arccosine baroness
alpes area baronet
  maritimes areas basedow
altimeter areaway bastion
ampthill areligious bathed
anaesthesia aren't bathurst
andean aright battishill
andreas arisen battleaxe
anemone armentois battledore
annandale around bauer
anteater arrowhead bayonet
antedate asthma beatitude
antenatal athens beatrice
antennae atherstone beautiful
anteroom atone beauvais
antheap atoned bebe
anthelion azaleas beckoned
anthill bedales
antigone bacchus bedaub
antinomian baedeker bedding
antinous bagration bedizen
antitheses bahadur bedouin
antitype bainge beefeater
         iii. guide to contracting
beelzebub benedetto bestial
beest benedick beta
beethoven benediction betel
beevers benefit bethel
beforehand benelux bethesda
befriend benevolence betshanger
befriended benighted better
begonia benign betws-y-
begum benito coed
behan benoist betweenwhiles
behemoth benthall bevel
behindhand beowulf beverage
bein' bequeathed bezel
being berated bezique
bela bereft bighead
belial berens binaural
believer beret bingham
belinda bergholt binodal
belington beria binomial
belisha beringar binormal
belittled berthe biofeedback
belize berthed birmingham
bellerophon besan@con biscuity
belligerence besant blaenau
beloff besom ffestiniog
belorussia besonian blakeney
benares be'st blakerage
         iii. guide to contracting
bleddyn bowater captainess
bless`ed brailler caribbean
blindage braillette carthorse
blinded braillex cassowary
blindfold brailling castiglione
blinding brigham castlereagh
blindism brighouse cation
blindly brother-in-law caveat
blindoc buddha centime
blinds buonaparte centimetre
blofeld bureau cereal
blood-letter business cerulean
blossomed chad
blumenthal caedmon chaeronea
boccherini caen chaffinch
boer caernarvon chalybeate
boloney cairstiona chancel
bo'ness cajolery changeable
boone calingaert chargeable
bordeaux callisthenics charleroi
borealis camoens charleston
boreas can-can charlestown
boredom cancel ch`ateau
bosham cancer chatham
bothe cannongate chemotherapy
bottleneck can't chieftainess
boughton cantonese chiffchaff
         iii. guide to contracting
childlike coblenz com'st
child-like cock-a- comte
chilean doodle-do comus
chimaera cofounder cona
chinamen coggeshall coname
chisholm coghill conan
chlordane cohere conation
chockfull coherent conative
chou en-lai coleraine conceiver
chromosome coleridge concertinaed
cicerone colonel conch
cineast coma conchology
cineradio- comates condone
  graph comb condoned
cirencester combe cone
citizeness com@edienne coned
citroen comic coney
clandestine comin' cong
clarenceux comingle congealed
clarionet -y congenial
cleanth commaed conger
clemenceau commander-in-chief congresbury
cleone commence congruity
cliff's commenced conic
cliveden commonest conies
cobbleigh como conifer
cobbler component coningsby
         iii. guide to contracting
coniston creation delineation
conk cr@eme de demoness
conker menthe demonetize
conklin cristoforo demosthenes
conman crosthwaite denationalize
conned crowhurst denatured
conning cunningham denicotin-
conoidal cunnyngham ized
conor denominator
cons dachshund denoted
contradistinction dacoity denouement
contrick daedalus denude
conundrum dafter denumerable
conversazione daingerfield denunciation
conybeare danced deracinate
conze daredevil derail
corday daunder derange
coroner dayan deregulate
coronet day-to-day derelict
cosham dayton deride
cotoneaster deaconess derive
coupon deanna derogatory
courthouse deceiver derouting
cowherd declared deshabille
coworker decongested d'estaing
create deduct destouches
creat*e delineate devereux
         iii. guide to contracting
dewhurst disyllabic effaceable
diaeresis ditherer effort
dieresis doggone effulgent
diffusion doghouse egg-cup
dinghy dolittle egghead
dione donaghadee eggtimer
disc donee egham
disco donegal eireann
discography doolittle eiste.fod
discus doone eleanor
disease doublet eleatic
dishabille doughty eleazar
dishevel drought electroence-
disingenuous duerer phalogram
disk dukedom @el@evation
disney dumbbells emmenthaler
dispirited dungeness enamel
disraeli dupont encyclo-
diss dworkin paedia
dissection dynaribbon encyclopedia
dissyllabic d'you enough's
distaff en route
distanced ed en saga
distich eday ensemble
distil edict entranced
district e'en enucleate
disulphide e'er enumeration
         iii. guide to contracting
enunciation fathead fruity
epineural father-in-law funder
equidistant fauntleroy funereal
equinox fealty furbelow
er feltham
eradicate fenced gadabout
erase feuermann galahad
erroneous feverish galingale
esarhaddon financed galloway
esparto finesse gandhi
esther finisterre garderobe
esthwaite firedrake gasometer
ethereal flatholm gateshead
european flearidden gatherer
euryanthe fontainebleau geanticline
evershed foothills genealogy
evert foredoomed geoffrey
evert (name) forenamed germany
exeat forenoon gerontion
exonerate forerunner gibeah
experienced foreseeable gilead
extensometer fotheringhay gingham
extramental francesca gingold
             frederikshavn giorgione
fa@ery freedom giveaway
faery fromentin glasshouse
farthingale froward goatherd
         iii. guide to contracting
goblet gruenfeld haven't
goddamn gruffly havighurst
goddaughter guineas headdress
goering guinevere heartsease
goethe gunther heathen
goner gwynedd hedgerow
goode heneage
goodge hadad hennaed
goodwill hadal hennessey
good-will haddington hephaestion
goody haddock hereabouts
gordonstoun hade hereafter
goshawk hades heredity
gothenburg hadid heredofa-
gotthard hadji milial
governess hadley hereford
grafter hadow hereinafter
grainger hadrian hereinbefore
grandad hainan heresy
granddad hambledon heretic
grantham handsomer hereward
grasshopper hanseatic herewith
gravedigger hapgd hermione
graveney harlessdyke hever
greatorex hartshorn hideaway
gresholm havena higgledy-
grimsholm have-nots piggledy
         iii. guide to contracting
hildesheim hypotheses inghelbrecht
himalayas ingledew
hobbledehoy ibleam inglenook
hoffmann icerink inhere
hofmannsthal ideality inherent
hogshead ideally in-laws
hoity-toity ideas insofar
holinshed imagery insomuch
holloway impartial in't
hollowood impermeable intoned
holofernes imposthume inverness
honegger imprisoned iolanthe
honest inasmuch ionesco
honey in-between iowa
hornblende incongruity isinglass
horowitz inconvenienced isomer
horseradish indiarubber isometric
hothouse indistinct isoneph
houghton indonesia isthmus
houseagent inessa it'll
housedress inessential ivinghoe
huguenot influenceable
hwangho influenced jamestown
hyaena infrared jean (french)
hydrangeas infula jehad
hydroneph- ingenue judaean
  rosis ingham jugglery
         iii. guide to contracting
             langham limbless
kettledrum langholm limeade
kilowatt languedoc lineage
kingston lanthorn lineaments
kingstown larousse lingaard
kingussie launder lionel
kirkcudbright laureate lioness
knesset leah listen-in
knighthood leander lljohn
knockab learig llover
knockout leghorn littler
knock-out legionella livingd
knowledgeable leningrad llandaff
knowles lenoir loner
knuckleduster leofric longhand
koenigsberg leopardstown longhi
krone leroy lordosis
kroner lethe loughton
kundera lettering lowenthal
             letterpress lucknow
lacrosse lever lufthansa
laertes leveret lyonesse
laing liebestod lyrnessus
lanced lighthouse
lancet likeable maccabees
landowska liliaceae maccarthy
langhaire lilleshall machardie
         iii. guide to contracting
maenad mceachan missolonghi
maharajah mchugh mistake
mahoney mckeever mistakeable
maingaard mcnally mistermed
malediction meandering mistimed
malesherbes meathook mistranslation
malleable meatus mistrust
malone meddle moeran
maloney mediterranean moericke
manageable meean monet
mancetter meleager monetary
mandrake mentone money
mangonel meringue mongoose
mansholt merioneth monowheel
manyata merstham montenegro
manyon messiaen monterey
marabout microfilm monteverdi
marchioness microwave montherlant
marionette midday montreal
marthe mileage moone
masthead minestrone mooney
matthew minneapolis moongod
maunder misally more'n
mbabone misconceived mortimer
mccann miscreant motheaten
mccommack mishap mouthed
mcconnell mishear moveable
         iii. guide to contracting
much hadham newham o'connor
multimedia nightingale oddness
multinational nobbut oedema
munthe noblesse oedipus
musta noisome oenone
mustache nonentity offer
mustafa nones okeanos
mustang nonesuch oleaginous
mustard nonet oleander
muster nongovernmental onegin
mstiness northab onerous
msts northeast opponent
musty northedge orangeade
mycalessus northern orangery
mycenaean northesk oread
mymmshall nosebleed orgeat
             noticeable orleans
named nottingham ornament
nauseate noway ortofon
navarone nowise oseney
neaera nuernberg osgd
neanderthal nuthatch ourself
neapolitan outhouse
nearchus oasthouse overeat
neurasthenia obeah overfull
nevers oceanic overmuch
nevertheless oceanus ow!
         iii. guide to contracting
             pensione pioneer
padrone penthouse pitchblende
paean peoples pithead
paediatric people's pityard
pageant peppone plateau
painstaking perhapses poingiant
palingenesis perinatal poleaxe
pally perineum popedom
panaceas peritoneum poperinghe
pancev persephone porthole
pancreas persevere portofino
pandemic pesth port said
pandowdy petronel posthumous
pararhyme peveril postponed
partake phaedrus potherb
parterre pheres potsherd
parthenon phineas praed
parthian phoenix praeneste
partial phoned pranced
passe-partout phoneme preamble
pastime phonetic prearrange
patroness phoney prcvr
peacock phreatic preconceived
peakeshole pianoforte predeceased
pean picofarad predecessor
peanuts piedish predestined
peeblesshire pineapple predetermine
         iii. guide to contracting
predicate puffball reappear
predict purblind reassure
predilection pyoneph- reawake
predispose rosis reay
predominate pythoness received
prenatal r@echauff`e
prepaid queenstown recreant
prerelease quinquereme recreation
prerequi- redaction
  site rabbity redeem
prerogative rafter redingote
priedieu ransomed redirect
priesthood rascally redistribution
princedom rateable redoubled
prisoner rawhide redoubt
profane reabsorb redress
profert react reduce
profession readmit redundant
proffer reaffirm reduplicate
profile reagan refulgent
profound reagent rejoiced
profusion realgar reliever
promethean reality renaissance
prounion really renamed
psychedelic real madrid renege
psychoneu- realtor renew
  rotic realty renown
         iii. guide to contracting
renumber roseate seaquarium
renunciation rosenthal seattle
repaid rosmersholm secunderabad
repartee ro/herne seinglind
reredos rothenstein sentenced
rerouted roundabout sentimental
rerun roustabout sergeant
retriever runabout seronegative
reverberation serviceable
revere saccharine several
reverenced sacheverell severe
reverie safflower severino
reverify saint-just severity
revers saleable severn
reverse salmonella severus
rhadamanthus sancerre shadow
rhon.a sanday shakedown
ribband sandinista shanghai
riboflavin saunders sheathed
richthofen savagery sheffield
riffraff schiedam shoreditch
rightab schoenberg shorthand
roedean schofield shoulder
roentgen scrofulous sidereal
romancer seaboard sierra leone
romany seamus silenceable
roneo sean silencer
         iii. guide to contracting
simone speakeasy subbasement
  (french) spencer sublessee
simone sphere sublet
  (it.) spikenard subpoenaed
singh spofforth suchet
sizeable spreadeagled suchlike
slagheap squally sultaness
slessor staffroom sunbleach
smithereens stateroom surinamese
snowhill staubbach sweetheart
so-and-so steatite swither
somersault steradian sword
somesch stevedore syntheses
songgram sthenic
songhai stiffness tableau
soonest stillness tablet
soothill stirab taffrail
so-so stoned tammany
southeast storeroom tarsometa-
southend strada reale tarsal
southern stranraer tearoom
southesk strathearn teas
southey streatham teatime
soweto strengthen teatro
sparrowhawk stronghold telephoned
sparta 'struth tennessee
speaight styrofoam thaddaeus
         iii. guide to contracting
theale toreador unblemished
theatre tothill unblessed
thence tourcoing unblest
theodotion towards unconceived
therapy townshend uncongealed
thereabouts traceable uncongenial
thereafter tracheae undcvd
therefrom transceiver undcld
theresa tranship underived
thermoform transhumance underlessee
thermotherapy trentham underogatory
theses trinomial underpd
theseus trousseau undisheartened
thievery trypanosome undistinguished
thing-in-itself ts'ong unearthed
thistledown tuberose uneasy
thoseby tuonela uneatable
threshold turnabout unessayed
timed tweedledee unfulfilled
timer twofold unilever
timex twood uninuclear
timoneer unless
titaness unamenable unlessoned
tityrus unamended unlred
to-do unamerican unmentioned
toenail unbereaved unnecessary
toothed unbleached unpd
         iii. guide to contracting
unsaid whoredom
untoward wafter wideawake
useable waggonette willaert
ushered wahroonga will-o'-the-wisp
             walkab wimbledon
vainglorious walther wingate
valediction warthog wiseacre
vandam wasn't wishart
vanderbilt waveney witham
vandyke weathered withe
vanessa wedded wither
veblen weever woful
veevers weingartner worden
vengeance well-to-do wordsworth
verityper wembley worksop
veronese wenceslas worsthorne
verwoerd werena would-be
viareggio weren't wrancham
viceregal westinghouse wringham
viceroy wharfedale wunderhorn
vietnamese whereabouts
viljoen whereas yaound`e
villainess where'er yeah
villeneuve wherever yeandel
vingt-et-un whichever you'd
volpone wh'll you'm
v@urtheim whithorn yourcenar
         iii. guide to contracting
you's

zither
zoned
zooful
             ::::::::::::























                 index
                  a
abbreviation point, 23, 5415, 558,
      662, 674, 711-7,
      732, 736, 751, 754,
      826
abbreviations
  braille: see contractions--shortforms
  print, 462-3, 5414-15,
      5418-19, 618, 71,
      731-4, 736, 8416,
      961
  unit: see unit abbreviations
accented letters, 51, 662, 674,
      appendix ii
accent sign, 24, 4, 511-3,
      516, 662, 674, 743
alphabets, non-roman, 57, 7510,
      appendix i
ampersand, 26, 721
apostrophe, 23, 4, 41, 517,
      5412, 5413, 562,
      612, 744, 823, 832,
      849, 8415, 8424, 862
arrows, 26, 722
asterisk, 26, 414, 723-7,
            index. ast-con
      942, 9711
at, commercial sign for, 26, 728
                  b
brackets, 23, 42, 434, 464,
      544 (c), 556, 613,
      617, 962, 967
break in text, 726
                  c
caesura, 26, 742
capital letters, 442, 513, 52,
      716, 753, 977, 9714
capital sign, 24, 4, 52,
      544 (b), 737, 753,
      829
colloquial forms, 823
comma, numerical, 25, 651-2
composition signs, 24, 4, 5
compound words, 451-2, 523, 548,
      5410
contents page, 921
contractions, by type
  composite groupsigns, 35, 86
  composite wordsigns, 34, 85
    dot 5 contractions, 853-13
  lower, 33, 84
    be, con, dis, com, 8414-19
    be, were, his, was, 8412-13
            index. con-dip
    ea, 8425-27
    ea and double letters, 8423-24
    enough, en, in, in, 8420-22
    to, into, by, 844-11
  shortforms, 36, 87, 8122
  simple upper groupsigns, 32, 83
    ble and ing, 835-7
  simple upper wordsigns, 31, 82
    sequencing, 827-9
contractions, general, 3, 713, 8
  bridging, 89
  choice of, 858, 88, 8131,
      8135, 8142-3
  non-use of, 515, 554, 716,
      833, 8112-3, 812,
      8131, 8133, 977
  sequencing, 827-9, 844-7,
      8410
correspondence, 93
crosses, 26, 729-11
                  d
dagger, 26, 723-4, 942
dash, 23, 43, 563, 614,
      643, 826, 8419, 917
dates, 612-5
death, symbol denoting, 26, 7211
diphthongs, 897-9
            index. dit-ful
ditto sign, 26, 7212
dot locator, 24, 53
dots, print, 414, 441-2, 726
dust jacket, 922
                  e
elided vowels, 413, 517
ellipsis, 23, 44, 564, 727,
      9711
english, early, 812
english names, 810
exclamation mark, 23, 425
                  f
facsimile hyphen, 24, 976
facsimile representation, 719-10,
      974-7, 9715
female sign, 26, 7214
feminine endings, 865
foot (metrical), 26, 742
footnotes, 724, 94
foreign
  alphabets, 57, 7510, appendix i
  names, 811
  ordinal numbers, 662, 674
  words, 811
  (see also accents)
full stop, 23, 442, 826,
      952, 964
            index. ful-hyp
  non-use of, 615, 618, 673,
      736
  (see also abbreviation point)
                  g
guide to contracting, alphabetical, appendix

                  h
half lines (verse), 742
hash, 26, 7213
headings, 916
hyphen, 23, 45, 553, 8131,
      8133-4, 8141
  influence of, 555, 613, 619,
      633, 643
  insertion of, 463-4
  omission of, 618, 645, 719,
      917
  with composition signs, 523, 548-11,
      5416, 555, 8144
  with contractions, 824, 827, 835,
      843, 849, 8414-15,
      8419, 8424, 863,
      874, 8131, 8133,
      8142
  with numbers, 5411, 613-5,
      617-9, 633, 643,
      645
            index. hyp-non
  with punctuation signs, 463-4, 715

initials, personal, 715
interrupted sentences, 433
isbn number, 923
italics, 24, 438, 443, 54,
      828, 847, 8412,
      8144-5, 961-2
                  l
layout, 9
letter sign, 24, 461, 515, 55,
      572, 615, 618, 671-
      3, 711-2, 714-7,
      719, 7111, 732-3,
      754, 8144, 952
line sign, 24, 56, 978-15
lisped words, 8135
lists of items, 917
long syllables (scansion), 741, 743,
      745
                  m
male sign, 26, 7214
mathematical signs, 25, 65, 8410
                  n
names, 810, 811
non-roman scripts, 57, 7510,
      appendix i
            index. not-poe
notes, 723-4, 94
numbers, 22, 424, 6
  cardinal, 61, 651-2
  compound, 5411, 613-5, 619,
      633, 643, 672
  contracted, 62
  decimals, 63
  fractions, 64, 654
  grouped with letters, 618
  ordinal, 66, 674, 834
  roman, 67, 737
numeral sign, 24, 461, 611,
      613, 615-9
                  o
oblique stroke, 23, 46, 618,
      719, 758, 7514
omitted digits, 612, 615
  letters, 414, 436
  words, 437, 441, 727
outer cover, 924-5
                  p
page information line, 914
paragraphs, 421, 547, 944,
      946-7, 95, 965-6,
      972-3
plays, 96
poetry, 964-6, 97
            index. pos-sta
post codes, 715
powers, 655, 754, 758-9
prefixes, 8418, 891-3
print page indicator, 24, 915
print symbol indicator, 24
print symbols, 26, 72, 917
punctuation signs, 23, 4
                  q
question mark, 23, 425
quotation marks, 23, 439, 47,
      543, 544 (a), 557,
      847, 849, 981 (b),
      982
quoted passages, 47, 543, 98
                  r
references, 73 (see also notes)
reference signs, braille, 26, 738
                  s
scansion, 74
separation sign, mathematical, 25, 643,
      653-4, 759
short syllables (scansion), 741, 743,
      745
slurred words, 8134-5
special braille signs, 918
spelt-out words, 553
stammered words, 8131-4
            index. sta-wor
stanzas, 972, 974, 979
stock exchange quotations, 645
stress, 512, 741, 743-5
subscripts, 25, 655
suffixes, 453, 8427, 894
superscripts, 25, 655, 7111,
      758-9
symbols, print, 26, 72, 735,
      751, 917
                  t
telephone numbers, 617-8
terminology, 1
time, expressions of, 616, 619,
      751-2, 759
type, change of, 544-5, 981
                  u
unit abbreviations, 616, 75
  capital letters, 753
  combined, 758
  contracting, 7512
  million, billion, 756
  spacing, 752
  use of letter sign, 754

vertical stroke, 9714
                  w
word division, 463, 99
              index. wor
word endings, 453, 814
             ::::::::::::
                 the end

























 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
